THE LIBRARY

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THE UNIVERSITY

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THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

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IX CAi' AMI ni-.l.l.S. A \I.A('H M A.S( )l ' I.RA I il-.R A'l' VKKKIA

THE NOMADS OF
THE BALKANS

AN ACCOUNT OF LIFE AND CUSTOMS AMONG
THE VLACHS OF NORTHERN PINDUS

A V, >

y BY

At J? Bif y^AGE, M.A.

FORMERLY FliLLOW OF PEMBROKE COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE

AND

M. S. THOMPSON, M.A.

FORMERLY CRAVEN FELLOW IN THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD

WITH FORTY-TWO ILLUSTRATION.S AND TWO MAPS

METHUEN & GO. LTD.

36 ESSEX STREET W.G.

LONDON

First Published in igi4

PREFACE

IN writing Vlach phonetically we have used as simple an
alphabet as possible and endeavoured to avoid the use of
diacritical marks. The symbols used are to be pronounced
as follows : —

a, e, i and u as in German,

0 as a closed o as in the French cote,

oa as an open sound as in the French bois,

ea to resemble the Italian ia in words such as pianta,

ai as in the English i as in mice,

ei as the English ay in play,

ao and au as the German au,

t and u as whispered sounds, the latter like a half uttered

English w,
a like the English er in better, while ^ is a vowel sound

peculiar to Roumanian and its dialects which cannot

be described,
p and b as in English,
t and d as in Enghsh,
g as the hard English g as in gape, k as the hard English c in

care, y as in yacht, gh (the Greek 7) like the g in North

German words such as Tage, h like the Scottish ch in loch,
m and n as in English and ri as the English n in finger,

1 as in English and ;' as in Scottish,

/ and V as in English, th (the Greek 6) as the th in thorough,

dh (the Greek I) as th in then,
s and z as in English, sh as in English and zh as the z in

azure, tsh like the English ch in church, and dzh like the

English j.

vi THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

g' as in ague or in argument, k' as in Kcw or the c in cue,
h' as in hew or huge, n' like the Italian gn and I' like the
Italian gl.

Although the name Sdmdrina is in Vlach pronounced as the
spelling indicates we have written throughout Samarina, and
this, if spoken so as to rhyme with semolina, is sufficiently
accurate for practical purposes.

As regards Modern Greek we have attempted to trans-
literate the language phonetically, but in the case of well-
known names and places we have retained the conventional
spelling.

We have to thank Professor E. G. Browne, Dr. Braunholtz,
Mr. E. H. Minns and Mr. E. C, Quiggin for help and advice on
many linguistic questions.

Of the literature on the Vlachs we have consulted all that
was accessible to us. The notes at the end are intended to
indicate only the chief sources where further information can
be obtained.

Sifurim shi eu ka tine vream si mi duk Sdmdrina.

A. J. B. W.

M. S. T.

Cambridge,

August isth, 19 1 3

CONTENTS

CHAP. PAGE

I

I. Mainly Introductory
II. From Tirnavos to Samarina

III. Life at Samarina ....

IV. The Costumes of Samarina

V. Government and Trade, Churches and Houses

VI. Birth, Baptism, Betrothal, Marriage and
Burial Customs

VII. Festivals and Folklore .

VIII. The History of Samarina

IX. The Vlach Villages near Samarina

X. The Distribution of the Vlachs

XI. The Vlach Language

II

39
60

69

100
129
144
172
206
226

XII. The History and Origin of the Balkan Vlachs 256

Appendices —

I. The Greek Texts of the Inscriptions in the

Churches at Samarina . . . 275

II. Betrothal, Wedding and other Festival Songs . 277

III. The Greek Klephtic Songs used to illustrate

the History of Samarina . . . 281

IV. Select Texts to illustrate the Vlach Language 285

Notes and Bibliography ..... 297

Vocabulary ...... 305

Index ....... 325

vii

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

I N Cap and Bells : A Vlach Masquerader at Verri a Frontispiece

FACING PAGE

Vlach Families on the Road . . . .12

Vlach Muleteers . . . . . .12

Vlach Families Encamping . . . . .16

A Vlach Camp at Midday . . . . .16

Ghrevena : Corner Towers of the House of Mehmed Agha

ON THE Left . . . . . .26

Samarina : The Dance at the Festival of the Assumption 26

Samarina from the East . . . . • 3^

Samarina : The Market- Place . . . .42

Samarina : Men's Costumes . . . . .60

Samarina : Men's Costumes . . . . .62

Samarina : Women's Costumes . . . .64

Samarina : Women in SarkA, Duluma, Palto, and SarkA . 68

Watchman in Brigand Costume with his Pet Lamb . 78

Boy in Andri and MalliotC . . . . -7^

Samarina : Milking Time at a Sheepfold . . • 7^

Samarina : Women working Wool . . . .80

Samarina : A Beetling Mill . . . .84

Samarina : A Saw Mill . . . • .84

Samarina : Great St. Mary's . . . .86

Samarina : The Monastery from the South . . 94

i ix

X THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

FACING PAGE

Samarina : Group of Houses, showing Oven, Gardens, and

K'ipeng'i . . . . . .94

Samarina : The House of Pagatsa .... 108

Samarina : Taking the Bride on Horseback from her

Home ..... . . 108

Samarina : Bride and Bridegroom dancing outside the

Bridegroom's House ..... 120

Samarina : Wedding Ceremonies . . . .124

Samarina : Priest and his Family at a Festival . .128

Samarina : St. John's Day, Arumana at the Conduit of

Papazisi . . . . . -134

Elassona : Vlach Quarter on the Left, with the Monas-
tery ON THE Hill above . . . •134

Elassona : Vlach and Greek Masqueraders at Epiphany 140

Map of Northern Pindus and the Territory of Samarina . 160

Baieasa : Bridge over the Aous .... 198

Verria : The Ghetto ....
Sketch Map of the Southern Balkans
Verria : Vlachs from Samarina and Avdhela
Neveska from the South-East

198
206
210
214

THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

CHAPTER I
MAINLY INTRODUCTORY

Vinira di t alte lokuri

Tra z veada anoastre tropuri.

They came from other places to see our customs.

Vlach Song

OF the various races that inhabit the Balkan peninsula
the Vlachs are in many ways one of the least known.
Though at one time of sufficient importance to give
their name to the greater part of Northern Greece, during the
last few centuries their existence as a separate people has
almost been forgotten. At the present day they are to be
found widely scattered over the more mountainous and
remote parts of the peninsula from Acarnania in the south
to as far north as the mountains of Bulgaria and Servia.
Their settlements are all small, there is no such thing as an
exclusively Vlach town and nowhere do they occupy any large
continuous tract of country. One of their chief districts in
the south is along the wooded slopes of Northern Pindus
between Epirus and Southwestern Macedonia. The higher
of the villages on Pindus are under snow each winter and each
year as soon as summer ends most of the inhabitants move
down to the plains with their flocks and herds, taking with
them whatever is needed to carry on their trade. Thus for
the six winter months there is a large Vlach population living
in the plains of Thessaly and Macedonia ; Velestinos for the
time being becomes almost a Vlach town, and numerous Vlach
families take up their abode in Trikkala, Larissa, Elassona

2 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

and the other towns and villages near by. The villages in
the hills however are always regarded by the Vlachs as being
their real home ; they are essentially a mountain people and
as soon as they begin to settle permanently in the plains, as
many have done in the past, far away from their native hills
and woods and streams they lose their national characteristics
and rapidly become merged into the surrounding races. Their
language both in its vocabulary and structure is clearly de-
scended from Latin — so much so that a Latin grammar solves
many of the difficulties — and is closely allied to Roumanian,
of which it is in fact a dialect. But like all the Balkan lan-
guages in their common spoken forms Vlach contains a large
number of foreign words and phrases, borrowed from Greek,
Slavonic, Turkish and Albanian, the proportion from each
varying in the different districts. The earliest record of
spoken Vlach goes back to the sixth century a.d., but it seems
not to have been written till the eighteenth century when a
Greek script was employed. Since the beginning of the
national movement about the middle of last century the
Roumanian alphabet has been adopted.

Excepting some of the women in certain of the more remote
villages all the Vlachs of both sexes know in addition to their
native language at least one other tongue, either Greek,
Bulgarian, Albanian or Serb. In the case of the women how-
ever this is largely a modern development for only fifty years
ago in an accessible village like Metsovo few knew any other
language but Vlach ; the men on the other hand owing to the
necessities of trade have almost certainly been bihngual for
many generations. The Vlachs call themselves ' Romans,' or
in their own dialect Arumani, which is really the same word,
just as the Greeks still commonly call themselves ' Romei'
and their language ' Romeika.' By the Bulgarians, Serbs
and Albanians the Vlachs are known as Tsintsars which is a
nickname derived from the numerous hissing sounds in Vlach
suggestive of mosquitoes. Thus the Roumanian cinci (five)
is in Vlach tsintsi.

By the Greeks the Vlachs are known as Vlakhi or more
accurately as Kutsovlakhi. The name Vlach which is a short-

MAINLY INTRODUCTORY 3

ened form of Wallach occurs in many languages and is perhaps
in origin connected with the name Welsh. In Greek it is now
and has been for some time past often applied to all wandering
shepherds without denoting any particular race, so that its
meaning is not always clear. We have nevertheless used it
throughout, but always with a racial meaning as it is the most
familiar name in Western Europe. The origin of the name
Kutsovlach, which invariably has a racial significance, has been
disputed. According to one theory the first part of the word
comes from the Turkish kuchuk little, and in this case the
Kutsovlachs would be the little Vlachs of the Balkans as
opposed to their more numerous kinsmen north of the Danube.
A second theory which finds more favour with philologists
derives it from the Greek Kouraog a word originally meaning
' lame ' or ' halting ' which occurs in many compounds often
with a depreciatory sense. Thus zovrao'Trurdru ' a poor sort of
potato ' we have heard applied to the bulb of the Cyclamen ;
and ;iour(ro5ao';ta7,o? similarly means ' anignorant schoolmaster,'
In other cases the original meaning of ' lame ' is more clearly
preserved ; February for example is called zovraog or ' halting
February.' On this theory the Kutsovlachs would be the halt-
ing or lame Vlachs again in contrast with those further north ;
the allusion being to the same peculiarity of speech that has
won them the name of Tsintsar among the Slavs.

The position of the Vlach villages high up in the hills of
Macedonia, in districts rarely visited, the departure of the
Vlachs from the plains in early spring before the time when
travelling is most common, their use of a second language in
all intercourse with the outer world and lastly the double
meaning of the name Vlach in Modern Greek have all helped
to restrict and confuse outside Imowledge of their life and
conditions.

Our own acquaintance with the Vlachs began quite by
chance. In the winter of 1909-10 we were travelling in
Southern Thessaly in the district between Almiros and Mt.
Othrys in search of inscriptions and other antiquities. In
Almiros itself and in one or two of the villages to the west are a

4 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

number of Farsherots or Albanian Vlachs who formerly came
from Pleasa. We happened to employ one of these as muleteer
and from him began to learn a few words of Vlach. Though
a resident in Thessaly our informant possessed a detailed
knowledge of the Macedonian hills, as he had more than once
been employed in Greek bands and failing these had made
expeditions of his own. A few weeks later while looking for
inscriptions in the plain of Elassona we spent the night at
Vlakhoyianni a winter village of the Pindus Vlachs and there
heard more details of Samarina and the other villages on
Pindus. The tales told proved of interest, so that a few days
later we employed another Vlach muleteer, this time a native
of Samarina, and plied him with various questions as to Vlach
life in general. He told us of mountains covered with grass
and pasture for large flocks of sheep, of forests of oak and
beech and pine and of innumerable mountain streams that
never failed in summer and were almost too cold to drink.
How every one at Samarina ate meat every day and wine was
brought up from Shatishta three days' journey with mules.
We had spent the previous July excavating in the Thessalian
plains amid heat, mosquitoes and dust, so these tales of woods
and streams proved all the more enticing. There were other
attractions also of a less material kind, a church with a mira-
culous pine tree growing on the roof (Plate XIV i) ; a festival
(Plate IV 2) at which all the marriages for the year were cele-
brated, and all wore their best clothes (Plate XIX) and danced
for five consecutive days. Further God Almighty, when he
made the world, dropped one of his four sacks of lies at
Samarina. These either — the excuses vary — ran down hill
to other parts of the globe or else being merely masculine
became extinct. The attractions proved too strong and we
determined to visit the Pindus villages the following summer.
The obvious course was to travel up with the Vlach families
who leave for the hills each year about the same day. We
found the muleteer and his family willing to have an addition
to their party ; and so agreed to meet at Tirnavos in time to
start with them. Our first visit to Samarina and the villages
on Pindus in 1910 has led to others since and we have also seen

MAINLY INTRODUCTORY 5

many of the Vlach communities elsewhere. Thus in 191 1 on
our way from Salonica to Samarina we went to the villages
around Verria and also to Neveska and Klisura ; in the follow-
ing year we visited Monastir and the Vlach communities
between it and Resna, Okhridha, jMuskopol'e and Kortsha.
Apart from these and similar journeys made mainly to study
the distribution and customs of the Vlachs while travelling
in the Balkan peninsula for archceological reasons we have en-
deavoured to see as much as possible of Vlach life and there
are few towns in Southern Macedonia where we have not
some Vlach acquaintances. Outside Macedonia and Thessaly
there are still several gaps in our knowledge ; of the Vlach
villages in Acarnania we have visited only one ; Albania north
of Konitsa and west of Muskopol'e is unknown to us, and the
Farsherots or Albanian Vlachs we have met have been mostly
those settled in Macedonia and Greece. When in Bulgaria
we were fortunate in having introductions to the Vlach colony
at Sofia, which is of Macedonian origin, but of the other Vlach
communities in Bulgaria we have no personal knowledge.
Lastly in Macedonia itself we have never been to the Meglen
though we have met several natives of that district in other
parts of the country. This book therefore can have no claim
to be a complete account of all the Vlach settlements ; its
aim is rather to give a detailed description of Samarina and
the adjacent villages on Pindus together with some account
of the Balkan Vlachs as a whole.

The recent history of the Vlachs has been complicated
by political troubles, which cannot quite be ignored though
it seems needless to discuss them in detail. We have therefore
noted only the main effects on certain of the \dllages, and
give here a brief account of the circumstances under which
the dispute arose.

At the time when the whole peninsula was under Turkish
rule in accordance with Turkish custom religion alone was
recognized as the basis of nationality, so that the Greek
Patriarch at Constantinople was the head and representative
of all the orthodox Christians before the Sublime Porte.
In 1821 came the revolt in the south which ended in the

6 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

establishment of an independent Hellenic kingdom. The
revolt however was far from being coextensive with the
Greek race, and also was not exclusively Greek for the other
Christians in the south Albanians and Vlachs too helped
and became part of the newly liberated population. Thus
there is in Greece to-day a considerable number of Albanians
who have been from the first loyal Hellenic subjects. The
Christians left outside Greece and still under Turkish rule
naturally looked towards the new kingdom, and many moved
southwards to come under Greek rule. Among these were
numbers of Vlachs who previously partly hellenized soon
became in every way Hellenic. This tendency towards
Hellenism was all the greater because Greek was then not
only the sole language of the church, but almost the only
native language in the peninsula that was commonly written.
The value of Greek at that time or slightly earlier can perhaps
best be seen from a Greek reading book written by a Vlach
priest of Muskopol'e in 1802. It begins with a preface in
verse, the first lines of which without maligning the original
may be rendered thus : —

Albanians, Bulgars, Vlachs and all who now do speak
An alien tongue rejoice, prepare to make you Greek,
Change your barbaric tongue, your customs rude forgo,
So that as byegone myths your children may them know.

Then follow a tetragloss exercise in Greek, Vlach, Albanian
and Bulgarian, all in Greek script ; a dissertation on the value
of learning in general and on the special advantages of the
book in question ; instruction in the elements of Christian
knowledge and natural physics ; a complete letter writer
with model examples of letters to dignitaries of the church,
parents, relations, friends, schoolmasters, rich Beys and
great Pashas ; lessons in the four rules of arithmetic ; and at
the end is a calendar showing the chief feasts of the Orthodox
Church. By about the middle of the nineteenth century or
somewhat later the other subject Christian races followed
the example of Greece. Servia, Bulgaria and Roumania
became independent states and their nationals left under

MAINLY INTRODUCTORY 7

Turkish rule demanded or had demanded for them by others
churches and schools of their own. It hardly perhaps need
be said that one and all of these movements were most
disconcerting for the Greeks and in particular for the Greek
Patriarchate which ever since 1767, when it suppressed the
Bulgarian Patriarchate at Okhridha in Macedonia, has fought
tooth and nail against all attempts at religious or educational
freedom. Among the Vlachs the national movement began
in the Pindus villages about 1867 ; it was originated by
natives of Macedonia, but help was soon procured from
Bucharest which became the centre of the movement.
Roumanian elementary schools were founded in several of
the Vlach villages and afterwards higher grade schools were
started in Yannina, Salonica, and Monastir. Eventually in
1905 the Vlachs were recognized by the Turks as forming
a separate ' millet ' or nationality. This however brought
no real unity as the Vlach villages are widely scattered and
many from their position alone are too closely connected
with Greece to wish to take a course of their own. The
movement however in the first instance was of an educational
kind, and the purely political aspect it has at times assumed
has been produced almost entirely by the opposition with
which it was met.

Greek opposition at first was confined to exerting pressure
by means of the church, but in 1881 when Thessaly and
a considerable Vlach population came under Greek rule
Roumanian education had to retire northwards and the
situation became more acute. The theory had by that time
been devised in Greece that the Vlachs were Vlachophone
Hellenes, that is to say racially Greeks who had learnt Vlach.
The arguments then and since brought against the Roumanian
schools were curiously inept ; it was urged that they taught
a foreign language, and were financed and staffed by
Roumanians and not Vlachs. As far as language is concerned
Roumanian has a close connection with Vlach while Greek
has none, and in the lower forms of the Roumanian schools
the Vlach dialect is used to some extent. Both schools
equally in most of the Vlach villages were financed from

8 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

outside and in recent years at least most if not all the school-
masters employed in the Roumanian schools have been Vlachs
and not Roumanians. It is interesting to note that the
perfectly valid argument that the Vlachs had rapidly been
becoming hellenized was not used at all.

In 1903 the Bulgarians in Macedonia revolted against
the Turks ; the fighting was fiercest between Klisura and
Krushevo, districts now allotted to Greece and Servia, and
the revolt was only suppressed with lire and sword and
wholesale brutality. One result of this rising was to show
the Greeks how much Hellenism had declined and Bulgarian
propaganda increased since the beginning of the Bulgarian
church and schools some thirty years before. Consequently
with the approval of the church a committee was formed in
Athens to hire bands to send into Macedonia to enforce the
claims of Hellenism and destroy Bulgarian schools and
churches. These bands were largely composed of Cretans
and often led by regular officers, but any ex-brigand was
sure of a ready welcome. Similar bands meanwhile had
been dispatched from Sofia to gather all Bulgarian villages
into the fold of the Bulgarian church and nationalism. In
the bitter and bloody struggle that followed the Vlachs were
soon involved, for the Greek bands were ordered to turn
their attention to the Roumanian schools as well. Threats
soon reduced the numbers of the Roumanian party, several
of their schools were burnt, many of their more staunch
advocates were murdered and their homes and property
destroyed. One result of this was that Vlach bands soon
appeared on the opposite side, but from their numbers and
position were compelled to act mainly on the defensive. In
July 1908 with the proclamation of the Ottoman constitution
this campaign ended and comparative peace followed. One
result of the recent wars has been that Roumania has secured
from all the Balkan states educational and religious freedom
for the Vlachs and the continuance of Roumanian schools
where they are desired. This should put an end for ever
to the peculiarly mean squabble in which the Vlachs have
been concerned.

MAINLY INTRODUCTORY 9

Owing to this deplorable dispute it has been extremely
hard for any one to acquire accurate information about the
Vlach villages. As Weigand found many years ago when the
quarrel was in its infancy and no blood had been spilt any
one enquiring into Vlach dialects was viewed with the utmost
suspicion and liable to be told the most fantastic tales. Thus
on one occasion we overheard the school children being
ordered to talk only Greek as long as we were present ; in
another village which we were assured spoke only Greek,
Vlach proved to be the common tongue. Nearly all modem
Greek books and pamphlets on the Vlachs which might other-
wise be of extreme interest and value, are owing to their
political theories almost entirely worthless. Political phil-
ology has shown that Kutsovlach means ' little Vlach ' and
that ' a little Vlach ' means one who is mostly a Hellene.
This result is apparently reached by deriving the word first
from kuchuk and confounding it with the meaning of zovrtjoc.
Another work purporting to be a sober historical enquiry
ends with the wish that our foes may hate us or better still
fear us. Such literature can hardly be taken seriously, but
at the same time its authors, often hellenized Vlachs, possess
a knowledge of the country that no stranger can hope to
acquire. Roumanian books on the Vlachs like the Greek
are not impartial witnesses. From the nature of the case
however they are less liable to fantastic theories ; as regards
the language they often minimize the number of Greek loan
words in common use, in history and in folklore Rome plays
a larger part at times than is either likely or possible and
the numbers in the Vlach communities are calculated on a
liberal basis. Estimates of population are all exceedingly
doubtful ; the Turkish figures take no account of race and
are only concerned with religion, so that a Greek may mean
a Bulgarian, Vlach or Albanian member of the Patriarchist
Church. Nationality too in the Balkans is still in a state of
flux ; and classifications according to descent, language or
political feeling would lead to different results. To take a
simple case from Greece itself; by descent nearly all the
Attic villagers are Albanians, a linguistic test would still

10 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

give a large number of Albanians, for comparatively few
have entirely adopted Greek. Yet if they were asked to
what nation they belonged the large majority would probably
answer Greek, and all would be Greek in politics and ideals.

A Greek estimate made before political troubles began
put the total number of Vlachs at 600,000 ; later Greek
estimiates give usually a much lower figure. An enthusiastic
Roumanian has proposed 2,800,000, but other Roumanian
estimates are from about 850,000 upwards. Weigand who
has paid more attention to the subject than any other traveller
puts the total of Vlachs in the whole peninsula at 373,520.
This seems to us to err on the side of moderation, for it is
based largely on the calculation of five persons to a house,
which from our own experience of Vlach villages is well below
the average. Including as Vlachs all those who learnt Vlach
as their mother tongue we should estimate the total at not
less than half a million. Of these however some will now
be using Greek and others Bulgarian in everyday life and
their children will not know Vlach at all. Quite apart from
questions which involve politics, information of any kind is
difficult to acquire. At times courtesy towards the stranger
which especially in the villages as we have good reason to
know is very real indeed, demands that all answers given
should be adapted to the questioner's assumed desires ; on
the other hand there is a deep-rooted belief, by no means
confined to the villages, that all strangers being credulous
the most fantastic answers will suffice. Once in the early
days when our knowledge of Vlach was small we arrived at
a Vlach village which had just reunited after a winter in the
plains. All around were talking Vlach ; we were welcomed
kindly by the schoolmaster who spoke to us in Greek. " We
only talk Vlach when we first meet again after the winter "
were almost his first words. It was not till a month later
that wc heard another word of Greek.

It is perhaps necessary to add that no dragoman or in-
terpreter has ever been with us on our journeys; most of
our wanderings have been made alone and of those many
on foot.

CHAPTER II

FROM TIRNAVOS TO SAMARINA

Kand are z yina prumuveara
S easa Arumanri pri la mundza,
Lilitshe n'i di pri Maiu!

When it is the season for the spring to come, for the Vlachs to go
out on the mountains, my flower of May !

Vlach Song

LARGE numbers of the Vlachs from Northern Pindus
who pass the winter in the plains of Thessaly or Southern
Macedonia arrange their departure for the hills each
spring so as to pass through Ghrevena on their way home at
the time of the great fair of St Akhilhos which begins each
year on the Monday that falls between the i6th and the 23rd
of May O.S. (May 29th to June 5th N.S.), and lasts four or
five days.

Several days before the date of the fair we came to Timavos
so as to travel up with the Vlach families to Samarina, as we
had arranged. We found our muleteer and his family eagerly
awaiting our arrival, but some days elapsed before the journey
to Samarina began. First there was some uncertainty about
the date of the fair, which was proclaimed by the Turkish
authorities at Ghrevena, and secondly there was a change of
plan as to the route to be followed. The direct route from
Tirnavos or any place in Northeastern Thessaly to Ghrevena
and the Vlach villages in Northern Pindus leads through the
pass of Tirnavos to Kephalovriso leaving Elassona on the
right, and then turns westwards to Dhiskata and so by Dhimi-
nitsa and Phili to Ghrevena. This road is that normally used
by the Vlachs who are joined as they go by friends and re-
lations from the villages in the valley of the Xerias, the ancient

12 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

Europos, the district being known as Potamia. In 191 o
however the annual disturbance in Albania had begun some-
what earlier than usual, and all passing into Turkey were
liable to be searched rigorously for arms and ammunition. It
was considered advisable to avoid the pass of Tirnavos where
the Turkish customs officials were reported to be very severe
and instead to take a longer route by Trikkala and Kalabaka
crossing the frontier at Velemishti. In fairness perhaps to
our fellow-travellers it should be said that this change of plan
was made in hopes of avoiding the trouble of unpacking all
the baggage — no light task where whole families are concerned
— and not because on this particular occasion they were engaged
in smuggling arms.

The few days in Tirnavos were not on the whole unwelcome.
We made the acquaintance of several of the Vlach famiHes
who like ourselves were bound for the hills, began to learn
a few words of their language, and to get a first glimpse of
their life, manners and customs. The Vlach population of
Tirnavos consists of over a hundred families, nearly all of
which come from Samarina. By profession these Vlachs are
muleteers, small tradesmen, cobblers, ironworkers, shepherds
and butchers, but most either by leaving their business or else
taking it with them manage to spend a part, if not all, of the
summer in their homes in Pindus.

Thursday, May 26th, was the day finally fixed for departure.
The morning and early afternoon were spent in endless pre-
parations. In view of a long and hot journey leeches were put
on the mules' hocks, and they were all re-shod. A large
amount of wool, for the women to work during the summer,
besides household goods and chattels, and clothes had to be
stowed away in large striped sacks, and made up into bundles
of equal weight, and lastly a lamb had to be roasted whole,
an essential preparation for a Vlach journey. All at length
being ready, the baggage was loaded on the mules and at five
o'clock in the afternoon we left Tirnavos. Our own particular
party consisted of our two selves, the muleteer, his grand-
mother, his mother, his aunt with her two little girls, Phota
and Aspasia aged about seven and five, a girl relation, several

PLATE //

1. VLACH FA.M1L1K> ON THK ROAD

■1. VLACH MULETEERS

FROM TIRNAVOS TO SAMARINA 13

chickens, an ill-tempered kitten and a dog, all of which
excepting the last were enthroned on the mules' pack saddles
between the bundles of baggage (Plate II i). One muleteer
can work a team of about six mules and a horse. The average
load for a mule is slightly over two hundred pounds, to which
must be added the weight of the rider, but in hilly or rough
ground all dismount except the old women or small children.
The horse which leads the caravan usually has a lighter load,
but is always ridden, for no Vlach muleteer will walk when he
can possibly ride (Plate II 2). Imndnddlid which literally
means on foot, is Vlach slang for being in the gutter. Attached
to our party was a muleteer from Smiksi ^\ith his five mules,
three of which were devoted to carrying an old woman, her
daughter and their belongings, and the other two to trans-
porting part of the property of our muleteer's family. Thus
on leaving Tirnavos we had in all a train of ten animals.
Owing to the late start the first stage of the journey was soon
finished, and at 7.30 p.m. we stopped for the night at a place
not far from the ferry over the Peneus at Ghunitsa, where we
found several other families already encamped, who had
left Tirnavos shortly before us. The mules were soon unladen,
the bundles piled up in an orderly row, rugs spread on the
ground, and after discussing the roast lamb we turned in for
the night, while the muleteers picked up their goat's-hair
capes and went to sleep and watch by their mules. Curiously
enough no Vlach muleteer ever tethers or hobbles his mules
at night when they are turned loose to graze. Consequently
he must watch them as much to prevent straying as theft.
Here as on most occasions when the night was clear conversa-
tion turned on Halley's comet which was then blazing in the
western sky. It was pointing towards Macedonia, and was
thought to be a sign of war.

The practice of starting late in the day and camping for
the night after a journey of two hours or even less is common
among Vlach muleteers, although not peculiar to them
alone. At first sight there is little to recommend this plan,
but in practice it is found to be the only effective means of
securing an early and a punctual start on the following day.

14 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

In summer also and for the greater part of the year a night
in the open is preferable to one in a village khan, which is
sure to be stuffy and probably also very dirty.

Friday, May zjth. — All were astir long before dawn and at
4 a.m. the mules being laden we moved do^vn to the river
bank to await our turn for the ferry boat, which took five
mules and seven or eight people each journey. Meanwhile
the sun had risen and we could see up the gorge made by the
river as it breaks through the bare limestone hills that border
the Thessalian plain. The Turkish frontier here crossed the
river and recrossing it below Kutsokhiro included a group of
hills on the southern bank. These hills to the south of the
Peneus were one of the strategic advantages obtained by the
Turks after the war of 1897, and were joined to the rest of
Turkey by a military bridge, just visible from Ghunitsa ferry.
While we waited on the bank the iniquities of a certain khan-
keeper, who had best be nameless, came under discussion.
A muleteer made a miniature grave mound, put a cross at
its head, and formally cursed the khan-keeper with the words,
" So-and-so is dead." Within a year he was robbed, abandoned
his khan, and fled. A belief in this particular form of magic
is probably common amongst both Vlachs and Greeks, but no
other example has yet come under our notice. After an
hour's delay all were safely across, and we continued our way
over the plain keeping the frontier close on the right. Soon
we overtook another family that had made an earlier start
on the previous day, and passed the river before nightfall.
Their unusual display of energy had met with its own reward,
for we found them vainly searching for two mules that had
strayed during the night. An hour and a half from Ghunitsa
we reached the Trikkala road about seventeen kilometres
west of Larissa, and following it crossed the Peneus for the
second time by the ferry at Kutsokhiro. The old wooden
bridge, that spanned the river here was carried away many
years ago by a flood. Preparations were promptly made
for a new one : an embankment was made for the road,
and piers were built in the river. The work was then
abandoned, and has not now been touched for several

FROM TIRNAVOS TO SAMARINA 15

years. Local opinion is undecided as to who is precisely to
blame, and suggests the ferryman or the railway which is
supposed to dislike road traffic. We crossed this time with
little delay, but two mules jammed their bundles in the ferry
boat and broke a bottle containing five okes of the best Tirnavos
uzo. Uzo is the North Greek variety of raki ; that made at
Tirnavos is justly famous. We followed the road for some
distance, and at 10 a.m. halted in a grove of mulberry trees
by the roadside just beyond the khan of Zarkos. The village
of Zarkos, which lies in a recess in the hills to the north of
the road, has a considerable Vlach population mainly from
Avdhela.

The midday halt lasted several hours. Fires were lit and
enough food cooked to last till the next day, for the camping
ground where the night was to be spent was known to be bare
of fuel. On the most frequented routes the muleteers have
regular camping grounds where wood, water and grass can
be found together. The whole journey is often calculated by
so many kundk'i or camps, and the length of each day's
journey depends on the position of these rather than on the
distance actually covered. The sun was so hot that those
who could not find shade under the mulberries unpacked and
set up their tents. As a race the Vlachs seem to feel the heat
to an excessive degree, and even in the hills will complain
of the sun on a day which most would consider only reasonably
warm. A Vlach tent, which is only used for sun or heavy
rain, is of a simple and effective type (Plate III 2). It
consists of a long, oblong blanket, very thick and made of
coarse wool, and in colour white with broad black or dark brown
stripes. The narrow ends are pegged to the ground, while
the centre is supported by two light poles connected at the
top by a thin cross-bar. The baggage heaped up and covered
by another blanket forms a back, and so a simple gable tent
without a door is made. These tents have two points in their
favour, first the sides can be touched without any fear of letting
in the rain, and secondly they are very light and portable.
The two poles and the cross-bar, hardly thicker than laths,
make no appreciable difference to any mule load, and the

i6 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

blanket helps to temper the hardness of a wooden pack
saddle. In a more severe climate a Vlach tent might prove
insufficient ; a door would be an advantage, and might easily
be contrived ; but for Macedonia however they will be found
in all ways satisfactory. As to how many each tent holds
opinions will differ, for it depends on the state of the weather
outside, but on a bad night six or seven can sleep inside with
comfort.

Breaking camp at 4 p.m. we start off again towards Trikkala
in a long procession increased by several families that had
joined us in the course of the morning from Tatar and other
villages near Larissa and Tirnavos. The main road to Trik-
kala here runs along the foot of the hills, in places on a small
embankment, and in places cut out of the hill-side to avoid
some large pools and marshes fed by springs at the hill foot.
This road does not appear on the Austrian staff map, which
marks instead a presumably older road, now never used, some
distance to the south. At 7.30 p.m. we turned off the road to
the north and camped on a small level space between the foot
of the hills and the marshes. On a low isolated hill just behind
our camp are the ruins of a Hellenic and medieval city, known
now as Paleogardhiki. Directly separating this from the
main range is a deep hollow in the ground called Zurpapa
where local tradition says that a priest who by a trick had
obtained his bishop's permission to commit incest with his
daughter, was swallowed up.

Saturday, May 28th. — An early start was made at 3.30 a.m.
in order to get beyond Kalabaka by evening. We turned back
into the main road, and went straight along it to Trikkala,
the first place that merits notice on this day's journey. Two-
thirds at least of the population of this town are Vlachs or of
Vlach extraction. Some of the Samarina Vlachs since the
cession of Thessaly to Greece in 1881, became permanent
residents on Greek soil, and founded a New Samarina in the
southern part of Pindus due west of Trikkala above Karvuno-
Lepenitsa, to which they go in the summer. But the majority
are still faithful to their old homes, and as we passed through
the town several families joined us increasing the caravan to

PLATE in

^rt*L^^~^AV'

V^'??».-.,

I. X'LACH FAMILIES KNCA.MPlNt;

fr^"-- 41

A \ I.Al (i (. A.\li' A I AllllllA^

FROM TIRNAVOS TO SAMARINA 17

over a mile in length. Many more came out to say good-bye,
and send messages to friends and relations at Ghrevena and
elsewhere.

Beyond Trikkala we set our faces northwards. Here the
character of the country changes rapidly ; trees become more
common ; the wide, open plain contracts, and beyond Kala-
baka gives place to a wooded valley through which the Peneus
comes down from Malakasi. Up this valley is the famous
route that leads over the Zighos to Metsovo and Yannina
and throughout history has been the main road into Thessaly
from the west. In the last thirty years since the cession of
Thessaly it has fallen into disuse. The creation of a frontier
across this route and the high Greek customs tariff have
strangled the once flourishing trade, and the villages on it,
which are nearly all Vlach, have dwindled in size.

At 10.30 a.m. a halt was made on the banks of the river
of Trikkala at the foot of the hill on which stands the monastery
of St Theodore. Two views of this encampment showing the
rocks of the Meteora in the distance are given on Plate III.

At 4 p.m. we started again, and reaching Kalabaka just
before sunset followed the valley northwards. We skirt the
foot of the Meteora rocks, pass the village of Kastraki, and
going slowly over a rough track that had once been a paved
road pass a khan, and then camp for the night at 8.30 p.m. in a
field about an hour from Kastraki.

Sunday, May 2gth. — There was a long delay in starting.
Two mules during the night had strayed into a field of maize,
and had been impounded by the watchmen. By the time they
had been ransomed and all was ready it was 6 a.m.

This late start had its advantages as we had a glimpse
up the Peneus valley towards IMalakasi and saw the isolated
monastery-crowned crags of the Meteora by daylight. From
time to time on our way up from Kalabaka we passed
under rocks of the same weird formation and saw others
standing by the edges of the valleys like grim sentinels. Then
we turned off up the bed of the Murghani river where the plane
trees on either side prevented any distant view.

At about nine o'clock we leave the river bed, and at 10 a.m.
2

i8 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

camp on the hill-side about an hour from Velemishti. Here
we were in the midst of a fine champaign country which was
very pleasant to the eyes after the scorched and treeless
Thessalian plains. Here were rolling hills, green and grassy,
and well covered with trees among which oaks and wild pears
were prominent. Water seemed plentiful, and the soil rich.
This, if looks go for anything, should be an ideal agricultural
and pastoral district. At 4 p.m. we were off again, and passing
through the village without stopping reached the frontier
station on the top of the ridge about half a mile further on.
The Turkish customs officer, an Albanian, did not prove quite
so amenable as had been hoped. He ordered all the mules to
be unladen, and then satisfied his conscience by making a
superficial search or rather by kicking each bundle in turn.
This and the examination of passports occupied the time till
sunset, so we stopped for the night on a grassy slope on the
Turkish side.

Velemishti is a squalid Hashiot village, which owns several
vineyards and some fields of corn and maize, and is wealthy
compared with other Hashiot villages. The district called
Hashia comprises the hill country between the Peneus and the
Haliakmon on both sides of the former Graeco-Turkish frontier.
Its western limit may be marked roughly by a line drawn
from Ghrevena to Kalabaka, and its eastern limit by a similar
line from Serfije through Elassona to Tirnavos. The name
seems to imply that the villages in this district are all chiftliks.
That is to say that each village instead of being composed of
small holdmgs, is the absolute property of one or more absentee
landlords. The inhabitants are thus little better than serfs,
for within their own villages they can own nothing. The
landlords are represented by resident bailiffs who collect the
share of the produce due to the landlord. The landlord's
share is usually a half, if he finds the seed and the cost of plough-
ing, and a third if the peasant finds them. Often petty acts
of tyranny take place. Some will take their third or half
before setting aside the seed corn. Others will let the whole of
the common pasturage of the village to nomad shepherds,
and refuse the peasants any right of pasture without payment,

FROM TIRNAVOS TO SAMARINA 19

for the usual custom is that a peasant has the right to pasture
so many head of sheep, cattle or horses. The houses even
when they boast two stories, are built of wattle and daub or of
mud-brick, but are as a rule in a most dilapidated and filthy
condition. The peasant has no interest in repairing what
is not his own, and the landlord is anxious only for his income.
The inhabitants, though as might be expected in hill villages,
they are often sturdy and healthy in appearance, are probably
the lowest type of Greek to be found. They are slow and
stupid and excessively dirty. Amongst their neighbours
they have a bad reputation, for they are thought to be dis-
honest and treacherous. In fact the name Hashiot with
some is almost a synonym for a dirty and thievish beggar.

The woods in the neighbourhood of Velemishti made it a
favourable place for all who wished to cross the frontier un-
observed. In the autumn of 1911, when owing to the cholera
in Macedonia, the Greek authorities took strict measures to see
that all who entered Greece secretly should at least do quaran-
tine, the extent of this traffic was revealed. At Velemishti
alone in the space of five days over fifty such persons were
found, including a band of five brigands who had spent the
summer in Macedonia, and an average of ten a day was con-
sidered normal. Absentee landlordism, and the facilities once
offered for brigandage by the frontier in the absence of any
extradition treaty, seem to be the main reasons for the deplor-
able state of the Hashiot villages.

Monday, May 30/^. — We start at 6 a.m. having first said
good-bye to the Albanian customs officer, who is left in a
state of blank amazement at two Europeans who travel with
Vlachs and prefer a night in the open to one in an aged guard
house. Our road leads through country similar to that below
Velemishti. To the north-east we see a fine stretch of open
undulating country extending as far as Dhiminitsa and the
Hahakmon ; to the north-west whither our way lies, we go
across rolling hills well covered with oak woods and scrub.
An hour after starting we pass Manesi unseen on the left,
and shortly after a Turkish gendarmerie station just visible
on a wooded ridge to the right. Four gendarmes watching

20 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

by the roadside were the only sign of life till we reached
Pleshia, a miserable Hashiot village. This consists of some
half-dozen buildings of wattle and daub looking far less like
human habitations than dissipated pigstyes. When we
passed through Pleshia in August 1912 it was totally deserted.
The long procession of mules slowly climbs the ridge
beyond this village, and here our fellow-travellers obtain
their first glimpse of their native land. There to the north-
west towering over the craggy ridge of Spileo are the great
peaks of Pindus, Zmolku and Vasilitsa, still covered with
snow, and half hidden in clouds. The first sight of their
home naturally caused great excitement amongst young and
old.

" Have you mountains in your country ? "
" Yes, but our mountains are not so high."
" Our mountains are covered with pines and beeches."
" In England pines and beeches grow in the plains."
Chorus of children and others somewhat incredulous,
" They say that they have pines and beeches in the plains,
but their mountains are not so high as ours."

At 10.30 we halt in a clearing by a spring for the usual
midday rest, and at 3 p.m. start again so as to reach the scene
of the fair before nightfall. The country continues to be
thickly wooded until just beyond Eleftherokliori, a Hashiot
village, somewhat larger than Pleshia, but equally filthy,
where after a sharp descent we reach the banks of the
Venetiko river, the most considerable tributary of the
Haliakmon in this district. At this point there is a stone
bridge over the ri\^er, but so broken that the mules had to
be led across, which is usually known as the bridge of Ghrevena,
though the town lies on another small river an hour to the
north. The Vlachs however call the bridge Puiiyea di
Pushanlu, the Bridge of Pushan. As all had to dismount
when crossing the bridge, and since there was some excitement
over the prospect of reaching the town soon, our caravan
unconsciously assumed the order usual when approaching a
resting-place. First came a troop of boys of all ages from
eight to fourteen hurrying on on foot, and eager to be in

FROM TIRNAVOS TO SAMARINA 21

first. They were followed by a band of women and girls
also on foot, most of whom were carrying their shoes in their
hands in order to get over the rough ground more easily.
The rear was brought up by the long and slowly moving
procession of laden mules (Plate II i), by side of which walked
the muleteers and men urging them on with sticks, stones
and curses, and ever on the look out lest a mule should get
into rough ground. If a mule gets into uneven ground, the
clumsy bundles balanced on its pack saddle, which is never
tightly girthed, begin to sway ominously from side to side,
and may turn right over to one side saddle and all, and so
involve five minutes' delay while all is unfastened, and re-
loaded. Also should a mule stumble and fall it cannot get
up again unaided ; the load is too hea\^ and clumsy. Then
when men rush in on either side and lift the bundles to help
the mule to rise, the perverse animal as often as not politely
declines to do so, and rolls over on its side kicking out in
a tangle of ropes, bales, chickens, cooking pots, puppies and
any other small items that may hsive been thro^\Tl on top.
Between each of the three divisions of the caravan there
was a gap, and with the last mounted on the mules was all
that could not walk, grandmothers, cats, babies and chickens.
Up the steep ascent on the other side of the Venetiko we
pushed on ahead with the division of boys, till we came out
on to a wide gi"assy plateau. This was covered with droves
of grazing mules and horses, each in charge of a small Vlach
boy, and showed that at last the fair was near at hand. In
less than an hour the plateau was crossed, and suddenly on
reaching its northern edge Ghrevena and the fair of St
Akhillios came into view. The shelving slope beneath us
was covered with groups of Vlach tents arranged according
to villages. Here were the Smiksi families from Potamia,
there the Pcrivoli folk from Velestinos, beyond the Samarina
people from Elassona, below the Avdhela families, and so on.
At the foot of the slope was the river of Ghrevena, a \vide
but shallow stream, which flows into the Haliakmon a few
miles further east. Directly in front on the further bank
was the town with its trees, minarets and clock tower nesthng

22 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

in the valley. Immediately to the east a flat, open common
by the river was the actual scene of the fair, thronged with
people and dotted with booths. Being late arrivals — the
fair had begun that morning — it took us some time to find
a vacant space to pitch our tents. This accomplished we
spent the last remains of daylight in wandering through
the encampment, looking at the busy crowd on the far side
of the river and enquiring after the prospects, sights and
shows of the morrow.

Ghrevena (Plate IV i), which the Vlachs call Grebene and
the Turks Gerebina, is a long straggling town and of con-
siderable strategic importance as it commands both the roads
leading from Northwestern Thessaly into the upper basin
of the Haliakmon, and those leading from Yannina and
Konitsa towards Salonica through Southwestern Macedonia.
For this reason at the beginning of the war of 1897 Greek
irregular bands under Davelis with some Garibaldians under
Cipriani made a fruitless raid over the frontier with the
object of seizing Ghrevena and so cutting the Turkish
communications between Epirus and Macedonia. The town
is the seat of a Greek orthodox bishop and what we know of
its history is principally due to its bishops. Pouqueville
says that it is included by Constantine Porphyrogenitus in
his list of the towns of Macedonia as Tpi(iai>K, but the Bonn
text reads UpifBam. The bishopric was one of those subject
to the independent Patriarchate of Achrida (the modern
Okhridha). It was not one of the original dioceses mentioned
in the golden bull of Basil II when he confirmed the privileges
of this Bulgarian Patriarchate, but it occurs in two lists of
the bishoprics in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. Dositheos
relates that Leo Archbishop of Achrida, one Saturday or-
dained a certain 'lojdvvrig K&-«^ci%s/pog priest, and the next day,
Sunday, consecrated him bishop of Ghrevena. Le Quien
thought this referred to Leo II, who lived early in the twelfth
century, but it is just possible that it might refer to Leo I
who flourished in the eleventh century. Demetrios
Chomatianos, Archbishop of Achrida in the first half of the
thirteenth century, mentions in one of his letters the death

FROM TTRNAVOS TO SAMARINA 23

of Theodore, bishop of Ghrevena. We next hear of the
bishopric in 1383 and an ecclesiastical document of the
Patriarch of Constantinople dated 1395 mentions zdar^ov
Tpz^ivov Xzyofyjei/ov. From other sources we learn that on
December 6th 1422 Neophytos Bishop of Ghrevena died, and
that in 1538 the bishop was called Symeon. In lists giving
the dioceses under the Patriarch of Achrida and in the
synodical acts and other documents of the same Patriarchate
of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the diocese and
its bishops are frequently mentioned. The earliest bishop
given is Gregory who was alive in 1668. He was followed
by Theophanes who flourished about 1676. This energetic
prelate although the synod had already chosen another
Patriarch of Achrida, journeyed to Adrianople and obtained
the see through the Sublime Porte. He was formally de-
throned by the Patriarch of Constantinople. His accusers
alleged that though only a monk he had seized the bishopric
of Ghrevena and had acted as such without being consecrated.
Further he was said to have induced the Patriarch of Achrida,
Ignatios a man of no intelligence and ignorant of ecclesiastical
law to consecrate him. He was also accused of perjury,
adultery, theft and of trying to take from the Patriarchate
of Constantinople and bring under his own authority the
diocese of Beroea. Other bishops mentioned are Pankratios,
Theophanes (this name occurs from 1683 to 1740, so probably
there were two of the same name). Seraphim, Makarios and
Gabriel.

After the Turkish conquest Ghrevena obtained the position
which it held throughout Turkish times, as the capital of a
district, first as the seat of a mudir till i860, and then of a
kaimmakam till 191 2. In the sixteenth century according
to Aravandinos, it was made the centre for one of the capitan-
liks of armatoli, a kind of christian militia maintained by the
Turkish government to guard the roads and keep order.
These armatoli were often brigands, who were taken into
service on the principle of setting a thief to catch a thief.
Robbers frequently betrayed one another to the authorities,
and if any armatoli and brigands fell in a skirmish, the Turks

24 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

philosophically considered that it was merely a case of dog
eating dog. Ghrevena is often mentioned in the modern
Greek klephtic ballads, large numbers of which refer to Vlach
or Kupatshar worthies. When the armatoli system fell into
disorder this region, like most of Western Macedonia, was put
into the strong hand of Ali Pasha. Afterwards it formed
part of the independent sanjak of Serfije, which was later
attached to the vilayet of Monastir. Some interesting details
about the armatoli and brigands of Ghrevena can be gleaned
from Aravandinos, Lambridhis and other sources, which we
have supplemented by personal enquiries on the spot. One
of the most renowned was Dhimitrios Totskas, a native of
Olympus, who flourished in the latter half of the eighteenth
century. He built a church of Ayia Paraskevi at Alpokhori,
and in 1776 at the suggestion of A3dos Kosmas gave forty
fonts to forty villages, and in 1779 built a mill at Dhervizhana
which produced a yearly income of twenty pounds for the
church. This was only one side of his life. Wlien urged
by Ayios Kosmas to give up his robber life, he is said to have
replied that in the spring his inclinations naturally turned
towards brigandage and murder. In 1770 or soon after he in
company with Belos the capitan of Metsovo, waylaid and cut
to pieces a band of Albanians returning with plunder from the
unsuccessful Greek rising in the Peloponnese, which had been
instigated by the Russians under Orloff. This exploit is said
to have taken place between Smiksi and Philippei, and so
probably on the col of Morminde. In 1780 he was bribed
by Abdi Pasha to ambush one Tsomanga of Metsovo, but
only succeeded in killing his fellow-traveller K. Kaphetsis.
He was murdered by the orders of Kurt Pasha in the church-
yard at Dhervizhana, where he usually wintered. Aravandinos
asserts that he flourished under Ali Pasha, was the successor
of Yeorghakis Zhakas of Mavronoro as capitan of Ghrevena and
was killed at Kipurio in 1809. Yeorghakis Zhakas of Mavronoro
was the founder of the best known brigand family. He
served under Deli Dhimos whom he succeeded as capitan of
Ghrevena, but later is said to have quarrelled with Ali Pasha
and joined forces with Vlakliavas who in 1808 made an un-

FROM TIRNAVOS TO SAMARINA 25

successful revolt in Thessaly. Yeorghakis who died in 1814,
was succeeded by his two sons Yiannulas and Theodhoros,
who by their activity as brigands compelled the authorities
to recognise them as armatoli. In 1826 the two brothers
were betrayed and attacked in their house at Mavronoro
by Mehmed Agha, the energetic Mutesellim of Ghrevena.
Yiannulas was killed, but Theodhoros escaped to Greece.
Two years later he returned and his first act was to revenge
himself on the Makri family who had betrayed him. He is
said to have killed them on his brother's grave. About the
same time he conducted a very successful raid against the
rich Greek village of Neghadhes in the Zaghori. In 1831 he
invaded Ghrevena and burnt many houses both christian
and Turkish. The next year he with two companions was
attacked by Mehmed Agha at Spileo, but escaped. In 1832
he took part with other brigand chiefs in the sacking and burning
of Kastania in Phthiotis. Up till 1835 he remained in the
Zaghori or near Ghrevena as the terror of the country, but in
that year he retired into Greece. In 1852 he surrendered to
the authorities at Yannina, but quickly returned to his old
trade again. In 1854 he joined in the abortive rising in
Epirus, Thessaly and Macedonia. He is said to have rescued
some Samarina families when attacked in camp by Turkish
troops, and was later blockaded by Abdi Pasha in the monastery
at Spileo. When Zhakas was actively pursuing his trade as
brigand in the Zaghori he made his head-quarters in the Vale
Kalda (warm valley) near Baieasa, the great hiding-place at
all periods for robbers. To-day a craggy height near Valea
Kalda is known as Zhakas' fort and is so marked on the
Austrian staff map. In 1878 in his old age he took part in the
rising in Thessaly, and on its failure retired to his estate at
Akhladhi near Lamia in Greece where he died about 1882
full of years and honour. On the Turkish side Mehmed Agha
was the most prominent character at Ghrevena in those
stormy times. His grandfather Husseyn Agha was one of
three brothers who left Bana Luka in Bosnia in the eighteenth
century. One settled at Avlona in Southern Albania, one
somewhere in AnatoHa, and the third at Ghrevena. His son

26 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

Veli Agha was ruler of Ghrevena in the days of Ali Pasha,
and after the death of the Lion of Yannina is said to have
taken part in the siege of Mesolongi. His son Mehmed Agha
was for some time at Yannina with AH Pasha and was smuggled
out of the town across the lake in a coffin by Duda, one of the
Pasha's couriers. He then rode for his life to Ghrevena.
Afterwards he made Duda's two sons devrentji's, one at the
Bridge of the Pasha over the Hahakmon on the road between
Ghrevena and Shatishta, and the other at Mavranei. Mehmed
Agha on his death was succeeded by his son Veli Bey who
died in 1880. The latter's two sons Rif'at and Fu'ad live in
their grandfather's great fortified house in Ghrevena to-day
(1912). The house or rather fort (Plate IV i) stands in the
middle of the town and covers an area of between two and
three acres. From outside one sees a high loopholed wall
built in an oblong space. At each angle is a square tower
and in the middle of each of the long sides there is another.
The gate is in the middle of the southern short wall facing
towards the river of Ghrevena and the two corner towers on
this side are larger than the others. The entrance goes
obliquely through the thick wall and one is in the midst of a
large courtyard in the centre of which a big, strongly built,
Turkish house stands like a keep. The whole place was
constructed for refuge and defence. Sheep and horses could
be pastured within the walls which enclose four springs and a
cistern. On the north side of the house was an isolated
tower standing in the court, which was the powder magazine.
The dates still visible in two places on the outside wall are
1829 and 1830 which show that the dates given in the tales
about the career of Mehmed Agha are probably fairly accurate.
He was exceedingly active in attempting to suppress brigand-
age and is frequently mentioned in the klephtic ballads. He
was constantly skirmishing with Zhakas and his friends, one
of whom Yeorghakis Bisovitis he compelled to surrender and
shortly after murdered in the market-place at Ghrevena,
according to Aravandinos. In December 1832 he besieged
the band of Suleyman Beltsopulos in the church at Subeno,
and setting fire to it destroyed both brigands and church

PLATE //-•

».» .»-

1^

1. GHRK\ K.\A ; HJkXKR TOWERS OF IHL HOU:3K OF .MF.llMKl) AOHA
ON THE LEFT

SA.MARl.XA: Till. |i.\.\(K AT THE FE>'il\Ai. K)\ WW. Ab.SL' .M I'Tl UN

FROM TIRNAVOS TO SAMARINA 27

together. In 1844 he is said to have abducted a maiden
of Ghrevena called Sula, who had refused to become his wife.
His grandchildren say that his first wife was a christian maiden
from Phili and that on her death he married her sister Midliala
by whom he had one son and three daughters. He died
in 1864 not far short of eighty years of age.

Scanty as our information is it gives us some idea of the
state of the district during the first half of the nineteenth
century. The Turkish government frightened by the Greek
revolution had determined to extinguish the armatoli, between
whom and the brigands there was little difference. In Ghrevena
was a Turkish garrison and some Albanian irregulars. Their
duty was to suppress brigandage, and keep the main roads
safe. The brigands would protect their own country against
other bands, and support themselves by raiding neighbouring
districts, christian or Turkish. But as we have seen in the
case of the brothers Zhakas, there were feuds amongst the
brigands themselves. If pursuit was too hot the robbers
would retire into Greece, or surrender to the authorities and
keep quiet for a time till they found a favourable opportunity
to resume their profession.

Ghrevena itself consists of two quarters. One is the town
proper called Kasabas, really the Turkish word for town
(Qasaba), where are the market, shops, government offices,
prison and so on. The other is called Varoshi and lies to the
west beyond a small stream. It is an exclusively christian
quarter standing on a low hill, and comprises the bishop's
palace, the metropolis, and some houses clustering round
them. In Leake's day there were twenty, but now there are
many more. Pouqueville states that the town was founded
by colonists from a place he calls CasLron-Bouchalistas, but
he does not say where this latter place was. It is possible
that it may be the Valakhadhes village of Kastro which lies
about three hours west of Ghrevena and contains the ruins of
a medieval fort. Locally it is said that the first inhabitants
of Ghrevena came from a place called Ghrevian Rakhiotis
a ridge on the hill towards the village of Kira Kale about
an hour north-west of the town. But with the information

28 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

at present at our disposal it seems impossible to decide how
or when the town was founded. Meletios, bishop of Athens,
who lived from 1661 to 1714, says the town was commonly
known as Avles, a statement doubted by Pouqueville. Leake
says, " The Turkish makhala (quarter) of Greveno ... is the
chief place of Grevena, which in the plural number compre-
hends a great number of small Turkish villages and tjiftliks."
Locally it is said that the town was once known as Avles,
and that the particular quarter known by this name was in-
habited by christians near the Turkish posting station and
stood, where there are now fields, near the centre of the town
on the bank of the river. Opposite this on the south side of
the river was another quarter called Tshakalia which was the
part burnt by Zhakas. This Avles quarter was still in exist-
ence about a hundred and thirty years ago and was the
Varoshi of those days. After the freedom of Greece Turks
from Lala in the Peloponnese unable to live under a christian
government came and settled in Ghrevena and occupied the
centre of the town. Then the movement of the christians
to the present Varoshi began. The Metropolis was built about
1837, and is dedicated to St George, St Demetrius and St
Akhillios. Before then there was only a small church of St
George on the hill top in the midst of a wood, and houses were
first built round it about 1780. The principal mosque by the
Turkish cemetery on the west of the town was once the church
of St Akhillios, and the other mosque to the east the church
of Ayia Paraskevi. These were taken over by the Turks from
Lala and about the same time they destroyed, so it is said,
three other churches in the town, St Demetrius, St Nicholas
and St Athanasius. The bishop did not always live at
Ghrevena, but at Kipurio, so they say locally, and he used
to be known as 0 " Kyioq ' Avkojv, a name which never occurs in
any of the documents relating to the bishopric referred to above.
Still the little stream that comes down from Kira Kale and
flows through the middle of the town is called Avliotis, and
consequently the tale about the name Avles may possibly
have some foundation and not be derived merely from a study
of Meletios' geography.

FROM TIRNAVOS TO SAMARINA 29

Ghrevena though situated in the valley and having no
good water supply is a pleasant little town, but in summer
is very hot. Above the town to the east is a large Turkish
school and in a similar position to the west are the barracks.
There are Greek and Vlach schools, several mosques, seven
Greek churches and a Vlach chapel. A market wtU attended
by the inhabitants of the neighbouring villages is held every
Monday. The population cannot be estimated because so
much of it is floating. The christians consist of Greeks from
the Hashiot and Kupatshar villages, and Vlachs from Sa-
marina, Smiksi, Perivoli, and Avdhela who are always more
numerous in the winter. The Mohammedans consist of
Albanians, Valakhadlies, and Turks from here, there and every-
where. Of course since the war of 1912 in which it was partly
burnt, Ghrevena has probably changed considerably in every
way.

Tuesday, May ^ist, the second day of the fair. — Shortly
after dawn we crossed the river on a diminutive donkey hired
from a venerable Turk at a halfpenny a journey, and went at
once to the fair. The crowd amounted to several thousands,
and the majority v/ere Vlachs. Vlach was the language most
commonly in use, and no one who has heard the babble of a
Vlach crowd can doubt the origin of the name Tsintsar.
There were Vlachs from nearly every part of Southern Mace-
donia, and Thessaly : most were in the national costume.
Vlach costume is a complicated and extensive subject, and
for a full account of the various garments and their names the
reader must turn to a later chapter. Besides Vlachs, there
were Greeks mostly Hashiots, a few Turks not counting gen-
darmes and other officials, some gipsies dressed as usual in
gaudy rags, and a number of Valakhadhes, and Kupatshari.
The Valakhadlies are a mysterious people, Mohammedan by
religion, but Greek by language, who principally inhabit the
districts of Ghrevena, and Lapsishta where they occupy many
villages. The Vlachs call them Vlahadzi and say that they
are Vlachs who became Mohammedans, deriving the name
from Vlach Agha, but this etymology is hardly convincing.
According to a more probable tale they are Greeks converted

30 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

to Islam and are called Valakhadhes because the only Turkish
they know is V'allahi, By God. As an analogous case one may
perhaps quote the Pomaks or ]\Iohammedan Bulgarians of the
Salonica province who after the Turkish revolution of 1908
were sedulously taught by the Young Turks as part of their
programme of Ottomanisation to say V'alldhi instead of Boga
mi. Nicolaidy who wrote in 1859 says that two hundred
years before two Greek boys from a village near Lapsishta
were taken as slaves to Constantinople and were there con-
verted to Islam. Later they returned to their native land
and began to preach the doctrines of their new faith. They
made many converts among the christians anxious to escape
from their inferior position and to obtain the right to bear
arms, and were eventually rewarded with the title of Bey.
Pouqueville seems to have thought that they were the descend-
ants of the Vardariot Turks of Byzantine times, a theory
which hardly seems possible. Weigand says that their racial
type is Greek rather than Slavonic and that they have dark
hair and aquiline noses. On the other hand many of those
we have seen were tall and fair. But if the name Valaldiadhes
merely means that they are converts to Mahommedanism,
it need have no racial significance.

The Kupatshari are hellenized or semi-hellenized Vlachs.
That is to say that through intermarriage and the influence of
the church and Greek education they have abandoned their
native language. They still however retain the Vlach national
costume, and many Vlach words occur in their dialect as well
as many non-Greek sounds such as sh, zh, tsh, and dzh. They
inhabit the district between Ghrevena and the pure Vlach
villages of Pindus. At one of their villages, Labanitsa, which is
only half hellenized we obtained some insight as to the process
by which denationalisation occurs. In the school and church
Greek is the only language used. All the older men in the
village know Vlach and so do many of the women. But owing
to the fact that the males outnumber the females the men are
obliged to take brides from other villages. Pure Vlach \'illages
like Turia and Perivoli are too proud to give their daughters
in marriage to Kupatshari and so the bachelors of Labanitsa

FROM TIRNAVOS TO SAMARINA 31

take brides from villages like Zalovo which are more or less
completely hellenized. The children of these mixed marriages
talk only Greek, the language they learn from their mothers,
and so the younger generation for the most part knows only
Greek. The name Kupatshari is derived by the Vlachs from
the word kupatshu, oak tree, because the district inhabited
by them is covered with oak woods. Lower down in the
HaHakmon valley there are no woods, and higher up in the
country from Turia to Samarina is the region of pines and
beeches. This plausible explanation is rejected by Weigand,
who says the word is of Slavonic origin and means digger or
agriculturist. This would well apply to these people, for they
are a settled folk and till the soil, and do not migrate like the
mountain villages. Weigand further says that the Kupatshari
district extends as far as Shatishta and into North Thessaly,
but we have never heard the name applied to any other district
except the lower hill country reaching from Ghrevena to
Philippei and Kipurio.

The main business of the fair was concerned with the buying
and selling of mules. These are brought from all parts, but the
best according to experts are those from Kassandra and
Xanthi. A young Kassandra mule half broken and not in
condition to carry a heavy load for several months was selling
at anything between eighteen and twenty-two Turkish pounds,
a price slightly dearer than the year before. Mules that had
already been worked were also being sold, and had branches
stuck in the pack saddles to indicate that they were for sale.
Horses were less in evidence. A few animals, small according
to English ideas, but useful enough, were being cantered reck-
lessly through the crowd, and shewn off to some Turkish beys
and a group of gendarmes looking for fresh mounts. Each
sale had to be confirmed by a document giving the description
and price of the animal sold, which was written out and stamped
by a local official. The rows of booths filled a large space :
food stalls where bread, wine, and lamb in all forms were on
sale did the greatest trade, and after them came saddlemakers,
and the sweet shops. At one end of the fair was an open court
with small stone built shops around it, where jewellery, knives,

32 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

cottons, silks, woollen goods, and watches and clocks were sold.
But all except the jewellery, which was mostly silver filigree
work, some of the watches, and the knives, were of European
manufacture. In another part Gipsy coppersmiths squatting
on the ground were offering for sale water pots and jugs of all
shapes and sizes. Near them were many Vlach women with
cast-off clothes which were finding a ready market with
Hashiots, and cloaks and heavy woollen rugs and blankets
of their own manufacture.

Shortly after midday it began to rain in Pindus, and late in
the afternoon the storm reached Ghrevena. The fair quickly
became a scene of confusion, and there was a rush from all
sides to cross the river to regain the shelter of the tents. Only
a few had crossed when a bore was seen coming rapidly down,
and what a few minutes before had been a clear stream of not
more than a foot deep, was quickly turned into a muddy,
impassable torrent. Some seeing what was happening ran
down stream, and cutting off a corner owing to a bend in the
river crossed just in front of the flood. Most however cut off
from their tents had to wait in the rain and mud till an hour
later when the river regained its normal size. Our tent was
pitched on the hill side, and the rain soon began to trickle in
at the bottom, and flow in streams across the floor. No trench
that could be dug with a haltdki, that typical Balkan weapon,
which is used for all things and does nothing well, proved of
the slightest use. A haltaki in shape is like a broad bladed
adze on a short haft, but in use is a cross between a hammer,
a chisel, a spade, a carving knife and a can-opener. When
bed-time came the women went out and cut branches from the
thorn bushes round about. These they strewed on the ground
and covered with rugs, and so made a couch which, if not
absolutely dry, was not wet enough to be noticed.

These sudden storms and floods are a common feature in
certain parts of Northwestern Greece, and Macedonia, and
at times do considerable damage as happened at Trikkala in
June 1907 when many houses were destroyed. In most
generalisations on Greek climate the year is divided into a dry
season, summer, and a wet season, winter. But this is by no

FROM TIRNAVOS TO SAMARINA 33

means always the case. In 1910 there was practically no
'winter at all, except on the hills, until March, when snow fell
in the Thessalian plain. In 1911 there was severe cold in
January and February, and as late as the beginning of May
snow fell on the lower hills. Throughout the summer violent
thunderstorms are not uncommon in the Samarina district, and
the Thessalian hills. They begin usually shortly after noon and
last only for an hour or two, and Leake records the same pheno-
mena as existing also in Aetoha and Epirus. The fact is
that there are two separate climates in Greece, and the southern
part of the Balkan peninsula. In the plains towards the east
and south from Seres as far as Messenia there is a dry, warm
southern climate. In the hills to the north-west and in Upper
Macedonia there is a climate which may be called Central
European, with short summers and winters, but with long
springs and autumns. The effect of this on the country is most
important, for it enables what may be conventionally called a
northern race to flourish to some extent in latitudes suitable
to mediterranean man. A careful examination of the flora
and fauna of the regions referred to would possibly lead to the
same conclusion.

Wednesday, June 1st. — Though we awoke soon after sunrise,
several hours elapsed before the mules were collected, and it
was 9 a.m. when we started from Ghrevena in a long line that
was a good four miles from end to end. Our own party had
been increased by the addition of a new mule, a purchase
at the fair, which was said to be nervous, and had an uncertain
temper. Just beyond the outskirts of Ghrevena we left the
metalled road that goes towards Yannina, and turned up a
muddy track over low hills covered with thick woods of stunted
oaks towards Mavronoro. Mavronoro is a Kupatshar village,
and to judge by appearances prosperous. The houses are
strongly built of stone, and have few windows on the ground
floor 50 as to be capable of defence. Round the village are
vineyards, and orchards of plums, pears, apples, cherries and
walnuts. The inhabitants live by agriculture or in bad
seasons brigandage, though of late the younger men have
begun to emigrate to America mainly owing to the conscription
3

34 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

of christians for the army instituted by the constitutional
regime in Tvirkey. Passing through the middle of this village
we soon after reached Vriashteno, a village of a similar
type, but dirtier and inhabited by Valakhadhes. Thence we
descended to the river of Vriashteno as the highter waters of
the Venetiko are commonly called. Owing to the recent rain
the river was well above its normal height, and even at the
ford the water was up to the girths. The mules that were
being ridden gave little or no trouble. But it was a different
matter with the others which were laden only with baggage,
or rather with baggage plus a few children tied round their
middles or chickens tied by the legs. These mules, waiting
till they were about half-way across, would then begin to wander
aimlessly up stream, stumbling and slipping over the smooth
round boulders in the bed of the river. The baggage would
roll from side to side, first one pack and then the other would
dip in the water, and the whole would threaten to fall. This
had to be avoided at all costs, since if a laden mule falls in
a river there is some danger of its being drowned. Sticks,
stones and curses hurled indiscriminately from both banks
had little effect. Finally several muleteers waded into the
river and forming a line across the ford drove the stubborn
animals through with their furtutire, which are light poles
with a fork at the top. They are used as their name implies
(furtusesku, I load, from Gk. (poprctjvco) in loading mules to
support the baggage already on one side and so prevent the
pack saddle from turning over while the muleteer loads up the
other side. All however crossed safely, except two which fell
in midstream, but as they had no livestock on board no
damage was done. At 2 p.m. we stopped in a grassy meadow
on the further bank for a short rest and a meal. The sun had
now come out and dried our rugs and coats wet with the
drizzling rain that had been falling all the morning. Three
hours later a start was made up a long gradual ascent broken
by a few steep pitches, all now being on foot except a few old
women and the smallest children. In parts the track was
wellnigh impassable owing to the mud which in places was
almost knee deep. Mules slipped and fell in all directions;

FROM TIRNAVOS TO SAMARINA 35

there were frequently two on the ground at the same time.
Grandmothers crossed themselves with fervour, and muttered
in Vlach : muleteers loudly made reflections on the parentage
of their much tried animals, and Andihriste, " Antichrist,"
became the common form of address. Andihristu is the Vlach
substitute for the Greek xspocrdcg, and like it has an endless
variety of meanings depending on the facial expression at the
time. Finally we emerged from the muddy track in the oak
woods, on to the bare top of the ridge near the little chapel
of Ayia Paraskevi. Below us about twenty minutes to our
left was the Kupatshar village of Vodhendzko, and beyond rose
the craggy ridge of Spileo with the villages of Sharganei,
Lavdha and Tishta nestling at its foot. To our right to the
north in a rift in the ridge on which we were, lay the little
hamlet of Tuzhi. Here for a short space the track was drier,
but soon after night and rain began to fall, and the path became
rapidly worse. The climax came when we slid for about half
an hour down a muddy slope in the dark. The long procession
was thrown into confusion, and on reaching the bottom where
we were to camp, several families had become mixed up, and
some units were separated from their main body. Our own
party, more by luck than skill, arrived at the bottom together,
and we had little to do but collect the mules and unload them,
and then struggle to put up the tent in the wind and rain, first
choosing a patch of ground that seemed less wet than the
average. Leaving the women to make things straight we
strolled over to another family that had arrived before night-
fall and succeeded in lighting a fire. Comforted by the
warmth we crept into our own tent, and after a hasty meal of
bread, cheese and wine got to sleep as best we could. Other
families fared far worse than ourselves, many were unable to
erect their tents, others were separated into two or three
little parties and had to spend the night in the open with next
to nothing to eat, and only a rug to cover them. When we
awoke the next morning in this spot which is known as La
Valko we seemed to be in another country. The night before
we had been amongst low hills covered with oak woods, but
now we were in mountain country sprinkled with pines, and

36 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

still rather bleak in appearance, for here spring had only just
begun. This small valley is a most picturesque spot. On
either side rise steep pine-clad hills, and down the centre runs
a small stream that rises immediately below the Morminde
ridge, of which more anon, joins another flowing from Smiksi,
and hurries down to the river of Vriashteno. Just below the
meadow where we camped this valley comes to an abrupt
end and the stream pours forth between two huge crags that
stand on either side like sentinels. There another road from
Ghrevena to Samarina, known as the Kutsokale (The Lame
Road), passes over the shoulder of the northernmost of the
Doaua K'etri, The Two Rocks, as these two crags are called.
But this involves a steep ascent over rough ground in order
to reach Valko, and so is impossible when travelling wth
families. Pouqueville refers to these two crags as " Les Deux
Freres " : this name soimds possible, but we have not heard it
used.

Thursday, June 2nd. — The morning, when we started
soon after 6 a.m., was damp and chilly. We immediately
cross the river opposite the small hamlet of Tshuriaka, and
follow up the river westwards. After about half an hour
we pass the khan of Philippei, where the Smiksi families turn
off up a small valley to the left. Philippei which stands on
the hill side about half an hour above the khan is a Kupatshar
village, and in costume the inhabitants approach nearer to
Samarina than the other Kupatshar villages. The principal
occupation is sheep rearing. Proceeding up the valley we
pass a small wayside chapel in a clump of trees in the river
bed, and some clusters of wild plum trees, which in early
autumn are yellow with their pleasantly acrid fruit. Another
hour or more brings us to a long zigzag ascent up to the ridge
of Morminde, which marks the eastern boundary of Samarina
territory. We pass the Pade Mushata (Fair Mead), a favourite
place for families to encamp, and in days gone by the scene
of more than one brigandage, of which more is said in a later
chapter. The Pade Mushata deserves its name ; it is a fine
level space on the mountain slope, cut through here and
there by rivulets of icy cold water, carpeted with good green

FROM TIRNAVOS TO SAMARINA 37

turf, and in spring and early summer bright with flowers,
primroses, cowslips, meadowsweet, gentian and cypripedium.
Arriving at the top we find ourselves on a small saddle that
joins Ghumara, a large conical mountain covered with pine
and beech on our left, to the Morminde proper, a long, grassy
ridge also partially wooded. Immediately before us is
Gorguru, a fine, rocky arete, still covered with patches of
snow, and wooded on its lower slopes. Behind GorguFu
and half hidden in cloud is the triple massif of Zmolku, of
which only two peaks, Zmolku and Moasha (The Old Woman),
are visible. Directly in front of us deep down in the valley
under the summit of Gorgul'u is the junction of two small
streams, one rising at our feet on the Morminde and separating
that from Ghumara, the other rising on the col called La Greklu
near the village of Furka, on the direct road leading from
Ghrevena to Konitsa, and separating the western extension
of the Morminde from Gorgul'u. Just above this confluence
and on the slope below the pine woods of Gorgul'u is Samarina
itself (Plate V). All eyes were at once turned towards the
village. Our field glasses were hastily requisitioned, as all
wanted to see the famous church on which grows a pine tree,
and also their own homes, the more so since several houses
collapse every year owing to the heavy snows, and the
infiltration of water under the foundations. The small col
of Morminde marks the watershed of North Pindus, for the
stream by the khan of Philippei flows into the Venetiko, and
so in time joins the Haliakmon which empties into the gTilf
of Salonica. The river of Samarina formed by the two
streams just mentioned joins the Aous a few miles further
down, and eventually reaches the Adriatic. Half an hour
beyond the col we camp for a short time, and make a hasty
lunch. But rain coming on again we hurry on over a cobbled
track, made by the inhabitants of Samarina from their
boundary by the wayside shrine on the col of Morminde
into the village. Here almost every stone and clump of
trees has its name, for instance a small ravine where there
is a saw mill is known as La Skordhei, further on below the
road is a boulder called K'atra N'agra (The Black Stone), one

38 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

in the river bed is K'atra a Bufiui (The Owl's Stone), and a
riven mass of stone on the hill side is known as K'atra Asparta
(The Riven Stone). We soon pass a small shrine with a heap
of horse-shoes by it, where the pious leave coins, and then
crossing a bridge over the stream from the Greklu ridge, now
a torrent in full flood, enter Samarina in a deluge of rain.

A crowd of those who had come up earlier (few families
had stayed through the winter) came out to meet the new
arrivals, to hear the latest news from below, and to escort
relations to their various homes. The house belonging to
our temporarily adopted family had stood the winter well, so
we found a shelter waiting for us. Others were less fortunate,
and one family had to dwell in a house that had only three
walls left. That evening female relatives of the family with
whom we were living, brought in as gifts to welcome their
relations home several pite, a Vlach speciality of which more
below. The next morning we made our way to the misohori or
village square, where the market is held, and the village meets
and talks.

Such was our journey with Vlach families from Thessaly
up to their homes in Macedonia. In Samarina alone there are
each summer over eight hundred families, which with few
exceptions spend the winter elsewhere, and though all do not
go so far afield as Tirnavos, still some go yet further, and most
if not all twice every year in spring and autumn, set out with all
their belongings on a journey of several days. This semi-
nomadic life has its effect on the national character, and there
are some Vlach customs which can be attributed directly to it.
One minor result which is of practical use, is that it has taught
the Vlachs, alone of Balkan races, that absolute independence
in travelling is synonymous with absolute comfort.

CHAPTER III
LIFE AT SAMARINA

Samarina hoara mare,
Kathe dzua ka pazare.

Samarina's big and gay,
Every day a market day.

Vlach Song

WE have already described the position of Samarina
on the lower slopes of Gorguru. If we look at the
village from a distance it appears not as a compact
mass of houses, but as a collection of more or less isolated
groups of houses scattered over a gentle slope (Plate V).
This effect is heightened by the fact that almost every house has
a garden attached to it. Though the lower part of the village
round the market place is more or less homogeneous, yet in all
the other parts there are many blank spaces where there are
no houses nor even gardens. This is partly due to the confor-
mation of the ground. The hill side on which Samarina is
built is not firm ground, but consists of a loose shale and
gravel through which rock crops out here and there. The
whole of the soil is saturated in the spring by the melting
snows and the water penetrating beneath the shallow founda-
tions of the houses causes them to fall. Were there no woods
above the village to protect it from the torrents formed by
snow and rain there would be considerable danger that the
whole slope on which the village stands might slide right into
the valley below. Curiously enough the four churches are all
situated on the edge of the village. This is probably due to an
old Turkish regulation that no church might be built within a
village. In the centre at the bottom is the church of Great
St Mary's, Stamaria atsea mare ; on a bluff at the northern

40 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

extremity stands that of Little St Mary's, Stamaria atsean'ika.
To the south on a ridge cut off from the rest of the village by a
deep ravine is the church of St Elijah, Aigl'a, below which on the
other side of the ravine is that of St Athanasius, Ayiu Athanase.
Before proceeding to describe in detail anything connected
with Samarina, let us first take a general view of the village.
The most convenient place to begin is the Pade of the church
of Great St Mary's (Plate XIV i). The Pade is a large green
on the south side of the church, opposite to which is the princi-
pal Greek school, where there is a small library of old editions
of classical authors bequeathed by a former schoolmaster. In
the centre of the green is a row of lofty poplars which in the
summer afford a pleasant shade for the classes held out of
doors. To the east the edge of the green is enclosed by a low
stone wall covered on top with short rough planks, a favourite
place to sit and talk in the evening or on Sunday morning
after church. Looking down into the valley from the edge
of the green we see several mills both for grinding corn and
for washing the woollen fabrics made in the village. Above
these, as also all round the outskirts, is a network of meadows,
where hay or clover is grown. Above them are a few houses
with gardens dotted with plum, cherry and apple trees. If
we turn our eyes further afield we can survey the wooded
height of Ghumara to our right, or to our left the Morminde
and the long ridge that leads from it to Samarina. We can
see on it our road from Ghrevena, and keen eyes will pick
out what muleteers or families are coming up. But let us
walk through the village. We turn to the west and make
for the principal entrance to the green leaving on our right
behind the campanile of the church the large tall house of the
Besh family, one of the landmarks of the village. In the
same corner is the Shoput di la Stamaria, the conduit of
St Mary. Samarina possesses some fifteen or more similar
conduits in different quarters, so that the inhabitants never
have to go far for water. To most of the conduits as with
this one, the water is brought in wooden pipes carved out of
pine trunks from springs on the hill side above. All along
the course of the pipe line are wooden traps to facilitate

LIFE AT SAMARINA 41

repairs or cleaning. Only a few conduits are built over a
spring on the spot, and the water of these is considered the
best. We next pass a willow tree with a wooden platform
built round it where there are benches for those who patronise
the small cafe opposite. Then we enter a narrow road roughly
paved with cobbles and havmg on one side a small artificial
stream which is used to irrigate the gardens below. On our
left we notice some ruins in a garden and more on our right ;
these are the remains of houses burnt by Leonidha. Passing
one on each side the shops of two blacksmiths and knife
makers we cross by a wooden bridge the Valitshe, a small
rivulet which runs through the middle of the village, supplies
water for irrigation purposes, and is a receptacle for rubbish
of all kinds. Above on our left are two tailor's shops, and
beyond them a sweet shop with a crowd of small children
about it. On our right we pass more shops including one
of the general stores of Samarina, where one can buy any
non-edible necessary of life, such as lead pencils, cottons,
aniline dyes, mirrors, silks and soap. Beyond this our road
narrows suddenly between two houses, we turn sharply to
the left and find ourselves in the Misohori, usually known
as La Hani This is the market and meeting place of Samarina
(Plate VI). It is a roughly triangular space paved with cobbles,
and not more than a hundred yards long. In the middle
are a large willow and a small cherry tree. The earth round
their stems is banked up with stones so as to form a narrow
platform about three feet high which makes convenient show
benches for the muleteers to display for sale the goods they
have brought up. Here we shall find muleteers offering
petroleum from the railway at Sorovitsh, olives from Avlona
or Volos, red wine from Shatishta, vegetables such as onions,
green peppers, vegetable marrows and beans from Tshotili,
fruit, cherries, pears or apples from the Kupatshar villages,
and wheat from Kozhani or Monastir. What is not sold is
not removed at night, but covered up in case of a chance
shower, and watched by two or three muleteers who sleep
on the sacks of grain wrapped in their goat's hair capes.
Round La Hani are the principal cafes and food shops, and

42 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

also the one primitive inn where the stranger may stay if he
wishes. But Samarina is so hospitable that it considers it
disgraceful that any respectable stranger should be forced to
lodge at the inn and not be invited to stay in a private house.
In front of each food shop is a long wooden trough on four
legs about three feet high. This is lined with tin and filled
with glowing charcoal over which lambs are roasted whole on
a wooden spit. The roast meat is afterwards cut up and
sold in joints. Muleteers when they return to Samarina often
collect in the evening at one of these shops and discuss to-
gether two or three pounds of roast meat and as much \vine
as they please. On the other smaller spits of iron the lamb's
fry will be roasted and sold as a kind of hors d'ceuvre to be
consumed with a glass or two of raid. If it be evening we may
find K'ibdk'i also roasting on an iron spit. Should any one
wish to celebrate some occurrence he will invite his friends
to join in K'ibdk'i one evening. K'ihdk'i are small portions of
meat; and are made by hacking up two or three pounds of
mutton with a haltaki. \\Tien they are ready roasted the
party will take them to the back room of the shop and make
merry with meat, bread and wine, finishing the evening with
dancing. This is the usual way of spending any penitadha
left by departing friends. The custom is that any one on his
departure from Samarina should leave behind with the friends
who come to see him off, a sum of money called penitadha,
which may vary from a humble five piastres to one or two
pounds, for them to make merry with as they please after his
departure. Some will betake themselves to a sweet shop and
consume a pound or two of Baklava, a favourite Turkish
sweetmeat made of thin pastry strewTi with almonds or walnuts
and drenched with honey. Others will make a night of it in
La Ha7ii with K'ibdk'i, with music and with dancing. Between
the food shops there are also several wooden cobbler's booths
with a kind of veranda outside where the apprentices sit and
work. Practically every young muleteer learns a trade, and
often in the summer instead of going about with his father
and the mules will sit at his trade in Samarina, cobbling,
tailoring or carpentering as the case may be. La Hani as

PLATE VI

LIFE AT SAMARINA 43

the centre of the village is naturally the place where all roads to
it meet. From the north-east corner goes a road which leads
over a wooden bridge across the Valitshe, past a couple of
food shops and a row of booths where tailors and cobblers
work, below a mill and so to the bridge over the stream from
La Greklu and into the Ghrevena road. The Yannina road
leaves at the northern corner by a cafe and then for a short
distance runs between cafes, food shops and sweet shops. One
of these cafes is kept by a deaf and dumb man reputed the
best barber in Samarina. Curiously enough the keeper of a
cafe often combines these two trades, and some will further
undertake to cure toothache by the application of pitch.
Next is a small open space by the Shoput al Bizha round
which are several more shops including yet another general
store. Leaving this on the left the road goes straight on,
then turns to the right by another sweet shop, passes the
conduit called La Penda not far from the house of the Hadzhi-
bira family to which Leonidha belonged, crosses a small
stream below a mill and ascends a steep pitch on the top of
which is a small green called Mermishaklu, a favourite walk
in the evening, where boys and young men collect to play
games. The Yannina road runs below the topmost part of
Mermishaklu, along some meadows enclosed by stone walls or
wooden fences to the Shoput al Sakelariu whence it follows the
valley leading up to the Greklu ridge.

From the southern corner another road leads off past two
cafes to the Shoput al Papazisi (Plate XX i) which derives
its water from a spring on the spot and is reputed to yield the
best and coldest water. Thence the road slants up the hill
leaving the church of Ayiu Athanase below it, passes several
mills, and runs round a deep ravine where is the Shoput di t
Vale, and climbs the other side to where stands the church of
Aigl'a in a grove of tall pines. The school attached to this
church is that used by the Roumanian party. Hence the
road runs along the hill side to the monastery for about half
an hour through woods of pine and stunted beech, amongst
which are open spaces carpeted with bracken and wild straw-
berries. From the monastery the road goes on to Briaza and

44 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

so through Baieasa to Yannina and Metsovo, or through
Armata to Konitsa.

There is yet another road leaving on the western side and
leading up the hill. It starts between a sweet shop and a
food shop, and then zigzags up the hill side in a space bare of
houses leaving some distance to the left the large house which
served as a Turkish gendarmerie station. We next reach a
level space on the top of the steep pitch just ascended which
is called Gudrumitsa. On our left is a low wooden sweet shop
which is a favourite place for young men to forgather in the
evening. They sit at the shop front consuming sweets and
looking at the view, especially observing the Ghrevena road
to see who is coming up. Behind this shop is a large stone-
built house with a courtyard in front surrounded by a high
stone wall (Plate XVI i) which was the scene of the treacher-
ous seizure of the robber chieftains in 1881 described below.
We turn round to the left by this house leaving on our right
another road that leads north towards Little St Mary's. We
go along a flat space for some little distance till we reach
another conduit, below which on our left is a kind of natural
amphitheatre containing a few houses and gardens and in its
centre the small shrine of Ayios Kosmas, supposed to mark
the spot where he preached. From the conduit just men-
tioned we bear away to the left towards the ravine that cuts
off the ridge of Aigl'a from the rest of the village. On the
bank of the ravine by the road is the Shoput al Dabura also
fed by a spring which rises just by it and is considered by some
to supply better water even than Papazisi. Directly beyond
we cross the ravine by a well-built wooden bridge and reach
the group of houses inhabited by the Dabura family. Hence
the road goes slanting gradually up the bare side of Gorgul'u
into the bottom of the pine wood, climbs over the shoulder of
the ridge and dips sharply down into the Vale Kama where
there are five saw mills. The Vale Kama (Snubnose Valley)
is a deep rift cut into the central mass of Zmolku. Its head
lies midway between the bases of the peaks known as Zmolku
and Moasha, and the torrent that runs down it is fed by the few
patches of perpetual snow that lie in deep clefts on the eastern

LIFE AT SAMARINA 45

foot of Zmolku and by one or two springs that burst out of the
rocks at a great height and shooting down over the precipices
are appropriately called Apa Spindzurata, the Hanging Water.
On the far side of the Vale Kama is the boundary between the
territories of Samarina and Armata, towards which latter
village a difficult track leads from the saw mills.

Some thirty years ago the deep ravine which now separates
the ridge of Aigl'a from the rest of the village was a small, in-
significant stream and then the woods of Gorgul'u, known as
K'urista came right down to the upper edge of the village itself.
Then too the Morminde ridge and Ghumara were thick with
pines and saw mills worked near the monastery. But they
cut the trees recklessly and wastefully, and allowed sheep and
goats to be pastured in the cleared areas, so that young pines
had no chance of coming to maturity even in this hill country
so well adapted for their rapid growth. So the destruction
proceeded till the slope of GorguFu was bare, and then came
retribution. The trees being away the melting snow and the
heavy rains descended unchecked on Samarina, threatened to
sweep away the village, and carved out the deep ravine already
mentioned destroying houses and gardens. Not till then did
Samarina awake to its danger and so some fifteen or twenty
years ago it was decreed that no one should cut trees in K'urista
or pasture any beasts of any kind there under pain of heavy
fines. Since then the wood has grown up thick and strong, the
destruction has been averted and pines will in time reclothe
the slopes of Gorgul'u. From the upper edge of Samarina to
the bottom of the K'urista woods is about a quarter of an
hour's easy walk up a gentle slope, now scarred with gravelly
streamlets where formerly, before the cutting of the timber,
there were grassy meadows. Arriving at the lower edge of
the woods we climb a small bluff and dive into the pines where
we find in a little basin of verdure an icy cold spring. This
spring is known to Samarina as The Spring, Fandana, and is a
favourite place for picnics and merrymaking at festivals.
There is room to dance, the pines give shade for sleep, and
from the edge of the bluff one can survey the whole of Samarina
together with the Morminde and Ghumara.

46 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

Only a few families remain at Samarina throughout the
winter. Some of these stay by arrangement to act as guards
in the empty village, others especially those who own saw
mills stop to look after their business. Recently owing to the
general rise in the cost of living other families have taken to
remaining in the village. This is done to save the cost of two
long mule journeys in the autumn and spring, and to escape
the necessity of paying rent for the house in the town where
they winter. But in these cases the husband and the elder
sons if they have trades which they practise, will go alone
to the towns in the plains for the winter leaving their
wives and families behind. The principal towns of Epirus,
Thessaly and Macedonia and even of Southern Albania receive
each winter detachments of Samarina folk. They may be
found in Yannina, Dhelvino, Berat, Ghrevena, Hrupishta,
Shatishta, Kozhani, Elassona, Kalabaka, Trikkala, Kardhitsa,
Larissa and Tirnavos. Of the latter towns Kardhitsa has two
hundred, Trikkala three hundred, Tirnavos one hundred, and
Larissa a hundred and fifty families. But in addition to these
many winter at Tsaritsani or in the villages of the Potamia dis-
trict near Elassona such as Vlakhoyianni ; and in villages near
Larissa such as Tatar or Makrikhori several are to be found.
But this does not of course exhaust the towns whither the
men of Samarina go to winter, for they may be seen at Philipp-
iadha, Katerini, Salonica or even in Athens itself. It often
happens that in the town, where they winter, many gradually
settle down and in course of time intermarry with the lowland
Greeks and so after one or two generations become completely
hellenized. Such are to be found all over Thessaly in the
towns mentioned, and also in Almiros and Volos. Elsewhere
they are to be found in Yannina and Athens, and in Shatishta
and Kozhani in which two latter towns the hellenized Vlachs
form the strongest part of the Greek population. In times past
emigration from Samarina on a large scale has taken place to
Verria, Katerini and Niausta, but this is dealt with below.

As to the population of the village it is naturally exceedingly
difficult to form an estimate, since it varies greatly from year
to year. Pouqueville our earliest authority says it contained

LIFE AT SAMARINA 47

eight hundred famiHes, but he does not seem to have ever been
in the village. Aravandinos whose book was published in
1857 gives seven hundred families. Weigand an impartial
authority says that in 1887 there were no more than three
thousand present in the village. But as we shall see below
there were special reasons just at that time why the Samarina
families in Thessaly did not go up for the summer. The
official Roumanian account of the Vlach communities in
Macedonia says that the population varies from four thousand
five hundred to six thousand. To-day the village numbers
some eight hundred houses and during the three summers
(1910-1912) that we spent there many houses were re-built
and some new ones erected. Thus the population seemed
likely to continue to increase provided no serious political
disturbance occurred to check it, as has happened recently
since the autumn of 1912. In 1911 some thirty houses were
built, and all the eight hundred were inhabited, some by more
than one family. Consequently we believe that in the height
of the season in July and August there must have been at least
five thousand souls in the village. Many do not reside for
the whole summer, but come up for a month only. Against
the natural increase of the population has to be set the loss
continually caused by the settlement of famiHes in the towns of
the plains, the wandering of the young men in search of work
in their trades and emigration to America. The recent increase
in the population between 1908 and 1912 was perhaps due
more to the improved political conditions, for in those years
several families were beginning to come up for the summer,
a thing which many of them had not done for long years
together.

On the whole life at Samarina, as noted long ago by Pou-
queville, is hardly taken in a serious spirit, and the four summer
months during which the village is gathered together each
year are looked upon by young and old alike as a time to be
spent mainly in enjoyment. At the same time business and
work are by no means neglected, for most bring up with them
all the appliances for carrying on their trades, and those who
abandon the shops or whatever their work may be, and come

48 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

up purely for a holiday can rarely afford to remain for the
whole time. The earliest day for families to start to go up
to Samarina is St George's day, April 23rd (May 6th N.S.),
when the shepherds first leave the plains on their way up to
their summer camping grounds near their native villages.
But the time when the bulk of the ordinary trading folk go
up is at the end of May, in time for the fair of St Akhillios
at Ghrevena, the first of the great festivals that mark the
full summer season. The end of the full season is marked by
the lesser festival of St Mary on September 8th (September
2ist N.S.) after which the ordinary people begin to leave the
village. The shepherds stay on till the day of St Demetrius,
October 26th (November 8th N.S.) on which day they start
to go down to their winter quarters. From then till next
St George's day the village is all but deserted and inhabited
only by those who have made up their minds to spend the
winter there either as guards or for other reasons. The
course of the full summer season between the fair of
St Akhillios and St Mary the Less, as the festival is called,
is marked by three great feasts which divide it into four
sections of about equal length, and those who are unable to
come up for the whole summer, will arrange their work so
as to be able to spend one of these divisions between two
festivals in their native village. The first feast is that of the
Holy Apostles, St Peter and St Paul, on June 29th (July 12th
N.S.). Next comes the festival of St Elijah (Aigl'a or Sand
Iliu) on July 20th (August 2nd N.S.). Then on August 15th
(August 28th N.S.) is the great annual festival of the Assump-
tion, the festival of St Mary (Stamarie) the patroness of Sama-
rina. This all truly patriotic natives of Samarina endeavour
to attend, and if they can come up at no other time during
the summer they will come for a week at Stamarie. At it
the year's weddings are celebrated, the village dances are
held on the green of the great church of Stamaria (Plate IV 2)
and in the days succeeding it betrothals are made for next
year. Between this day and the lesser festival of St Mary
there is, as all Samarina folk boast, more merrymaking than
in the whole of the rest of summer put together. Apart from

LIFE AT SAMARINA 49

these great festivals when all work is of course in abeyance and
the whole village gives itself up to amusement there are several
minor festivals detailed on a later page and various smaller
social functions of everyday occurrence. Amongst them a
system of paying calls seems especially characteristic of Vlach
life. A call can be made at almost any hour either in the morn-
ing or afternoon, and on any day, but a Sunday or a holiday is
more normal. One rarely goes alone to pay such calls, but
four or more go together. On entering the house they are
welcomed by the householder and his famity, and leaving
their shoes on the threshold, if they are dressed in the Vlach
national costume, are invited to sit on the rugs laid either on
the built wooden bench running round the wall of the living-
room or on the floor in the place of honour on either side of the
hearth. Recently, since Samarina has possessed an expert
joiner, chairs have begun to take their place among household
luxuries and as seats of honour especially for those dressed
ci la Franca, for it is asserted not without truth that those
who wear trousers find it uncomfortable to sit with crossed
legs tailorwise on the floor. When all are seated cigarettes
are passed round and then the usual refreshments are brought
in on a tray and handed round by the wife or elder daughter.
They consist of a spoonful of jam or a lump of Turkish Delight,
a glass of raki or some similar liqueur and a cup of Turkish
coffee. No native of Samarina is so poor or so lacking in
dignity as not to offer any stranger who calls on him at least a
lump of Turkish Delight and a glass of wine. Hospitality is
the keynote of Vlach life and the stranger is quickly made to
feel at home, if he is prepared to enjoy simple comforts. A
whole day is sometimes spent in such calls, and on arrival in
a village the traveller is usually taken round from house to
house to make the acquaintance of the chief inhabitants. The
noticeable feature about these functions is the part played by
women. Vlach women, unlike women in a Greek village, are
treated by the men with far greater respect and in some cases
almost as equals. The women pay calls like the men and
both converse together freely. On the other hand the women
rarely and apparently never as a regular habit eat with the
4

50 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

men of a family. This is probably mainly a matter of
convenience, since the women do the cooking, and does not
necessarily imply any idea of inferiority. To a certam extent
girls are kept secluded in that fashion dictates that they should
not be seen out of doors unaccompanied by a brother, first
cousin, or some elderly relation such as an uncle, aunt or
one of their parents. This rule does not apply when they go
to the spring for water or to the river to wash clothes. Further
at dances at weddings and festivals no young men are allowed
to dance with girls other than their sisters or first cousins who
are blood relations according to the canons of the Greek church.
But whole families will go out for picnics together and in general
both sexes meet as equals. The superior status of women,
which strikes one forcibly on coming from a Greek to a Vlach
village, is probably due to a difference in marriage customs.
In Greece it is the common thing for a man to be at home
on his name-day to all his friends and relations, and
Greeks in the villages are sometimes in the habit of paying
calls on Sundays. But the fully developed social system as
regards calling which the Vlachs possess is, as far as our know-
ledge goes, totally unknown in Greece. Further the Vlach
custom according to which a whole village or parish is at
home to everybody else on the festival of the parish church is,
we believe, peculiar to Vlachs. The freer social life of the
Vlachs, partly due to frequent travels, gives them in this
respect better manners and a broader outlook on life. Conse-
quently the Vlach women never become what the Greek
village women so often are, drudges in the houses of their
husbands, who often deem them little better than cook-
housekeepers.

A frequent form of entertaining is lunching in the pine
woods, especially in K'urista at the Fandana. This is the
favourite spot at Samarina for a picnic, but every Vlach
village has its special place which must be provided with an
ice cold spring, smooth green turf for dancmg and a few
pines to give shade. The food at such an outing is always
supplied by a lamb which should be killed, roasted and eaten
on the spot. The lamb is dressed and placed on a wooden

LIFE AT SAMARINA 51

spit to roast over a fire of pine branches, and by its side the
fry is set to roast on an iron spit. The latter is naturally
done first, and is eaten as a kind of hors d'ocuvre accompanied
by glasses of raki. Then the lamb itself is devoured with
bread, garlic and wine. Next, perhaps, a large tin dish of
some sweetmeat such as Baklava will be divided amongst the
company. Finally all will dance and sing accompanied by
such musical instruments as it has been possible to collect. The
dancers will only interrupt their wild gyrations to drink one
another's health in the good red wine of Shatishta or to fire
off rifles and revolvers by way of shewing that they are
thoroughly enjoying themselves.

Vlach feeding as a whole differs so much from the usual
fare to be obtained in the other villages of Macedonia, Epirus
and Greece proper, that a short digression may here be allowed.
In contrast to the Greeks who as a race live principally on
bread, olives, cheese and garlic, and eat little meat and that
highly seasoned and disguised with sauces, the Vlachs think
plain roast meat, hot or cold, in large quantities essential to
any meal worthy the name. Even the muleteer as he jogs
along his weary road always has a snack of cold lamb, bread
and cheese washed down by long pulls at his wooden flask or
wine skin. It requires some little skill to drink gracefull}^
from a full wine skm while ambling along on mule-back. The
triumph of Vlach cooking however is Piid, which may be
considered the Vlach national dish. A pita is a kind of pasty
made in a wide, shallow, metal dish which has a hollow, conical
metal lid of great importance for the proper baking of the
pita. When the pita is made the dish is placed on an iron
tripod over a wood fire on the open hearth and then the lid
which has been previously heated and covered with a thick
layer of ashes to retain the heat is placed over it so that both
top and bottom may be baked equally. The pita itself is
made by laying four or more thin leaves of pastry in the
bottom of the dish, on which a thick central layer of vege-
tables, cheese or finely chopped meat is placed. The whole
is then covered over with about six more leaves of the thin
pastry, all of which are generously anointed with butter and

53 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

occasionally small lumps of cheese. All kinds of pita are
good, but perhaps the best is that made with leeks, nettles
or some similar vegetable. For some obscure reason this
dish is practically confined to the Vlachs, and is rarely to be
seen in any Greek \dllage. A variety of pita is known in
Roumania, but pita to be really good must be made of freshly
rolled pastry and must be baked in its special dish and not
in an oven. Other foods to be met with are various kinds of
vegetables, and the usual kinds made from milk such as cheeses
and yiaurti which the Vlachs call mdrcatu. But these latter
are not peculiarly Vlach, and are common to all Balkan
peoples who are shepherds.

An invitation to dinner in a Vlach house always means
that the guest is expected to stay the night. For instance
one of the writers during a few days' stay at Elassona in the
winter spent each night in a different house owing to the
hospitable invitations of friends from Samarina who were
wintering there. This system of sleeping where one dines
has given rise to a custom peculiar to the women. On
Saturday nights after the week's work is over — for the women
of the family do all the household work — the mother or one of
the daughters will often be invited to go and spend the night
with a cousin, married sister or friend. Such invitations may
also be given on Sunday nights, but in all cases the person
so invited must return to her own home at dawn the next
morning. This custom is commoner amongst the unmarried
than the married women. It is perhaps due to the desire
of the girls to see something of one another, for being
kept in comparative seclusion and being engaged in the
work of the house they have few opportunities of meet-
ing on ordinary days. The custom is known as going
azborii.

The Vlachs have a reputation for heavy drinking and of
all Pindus villages Samarina is generally considered to drink
more than the others. Our experience hardly bears this out,
and as far as we could see a Vlach village as regards drinking
is much like any other christian village in the Balkans. Ap-
parently in recent years a succession of bad seasons has

LIFE AT SAMARINA 53

brought about a rise in the price of wine and with it a decrease
in the amount drunk. It cannot however be denied that in
the summer at Samarina a great quantity of wine is drunk,
but there is really very little habitual drunkenness. On the
whole one may say with a fair amount of truth that the Vlach
drinks more than his neighbours, but since he loses his temper
less and does not use a knife at the slightest excuse and in
fact is often without one, the result is less obvious. As can
be gathered from the description of the village given above
Samarina possesses several cafes and these are on the whole
well patronised. But among the Vlachs the confirmed cafe
loafer, a common Levantine type, who possesses the art of
sitting down from early morning to sunset with one interval
at noon for a meal and sleep, is rarely if ever seen. The Vlach
who has nothing to do will walk about or go outside the village
and sit on the hill side. The Greek idea of happiness lies in
town life, and the wealthy provincial Greek who can live
where he pleases prefers a house in the main street near to
the chief cafe. The idea of a country house does not as yet
exist, and few owners of large farms will live for choice on
their properties, and will only rarely visit them. In this
case however fear of brigands, especially in Thessaly, the part
of Greece where large estates are most common, has been
largely responsible. Still the country Greek of any class,
with very few exceptions, would always vote for town life
with its cafes and theatres. The ideal of the Vlach on the
other hand is the life of the open road or country, up in the
hills away from the plains and towns. Pines and beeches,
which in the Balkans only grow in the hills, mountains, plenty
of cold water, but only for drinking purposes, a fine open
view and large flocks of sheep play a very large part in the
Vlach ideal. A difference in temperament between Vlach
and Greek comes out in many minor points. A Vlach has
the quieter manner of speech, a comparative absence of gesticu-
lation, and a lack of that excessive curiosity which especially
in financial matters is so typical of the Greeks. He is also
less hot-tempered and takes the small inconveniences of life
in a more calm and tranquil frame of mind ; there is a lack

54 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

of self-assertion and no race perhaps in the Balkans is more
easily absorbed by others.

A similar difference can be seen in forms of amusement.
Games of a vigorous type are not really known in Greece
though a few have recently been imported and football is
attempted at certain schools. The great aim of the Greek
schoolboy in the town is to acquire a slow and staid gait,
and even in the country he shows no desire for exercise. In
a Vlach village however vigorous games which men as well
as boys can play, are a normal amusement. These games
are indeed crude, but they contain the main idea that all
concerned should do something violent and that frequently.
The reader may perhaps think this distinction exaggerated
seeing the gymnastic training given in Greek schools with a
view to winning successes at the Panhellenic games. But
Panhellenic games and gymnastics of all kinds are still an
artificial revival in Modern Greece, and are not as yet really
native. The authors after many years' travel in all parts of
Greece have only once seen a village game in progress and
there as it turned out the population was entirely Vlach. On
another occasion the authors spent five days in an up-country
quarantine station on the Graeco-Turkish frontier where those
undergoing quarantine consisted of Greeks, Vlachs and Turks.
The Vlachs killed time by playing games, at which the Greeks
looked on in the intervals of card playing and cigarette smok-
ing. The five commonest Vlach games are the following.
First comes that called Muma ku Preftlu (The Mother with the
Priest). One of the players sits down on the ground in the
middle and another stands up behind him holding tightly by
his collar or some other portion of his garments. The other
players circle round running in and out, and try to smack
the one sitting down as hard as they can on the head or
shoulders without getting hit by the watcher. The watcher
jumps about round the seated person, of whom he must not
let go, and tiies to hit one of the others with his foot — before
beginning the players slip off their shoes — anywhere, but on
the hand which does not count. He who is hit must then
take the post of the watcher who takes the place of the one

LIFE AT SAMARINA 55

sitting down. When this game is played by ten or a dozen
young men the fun is fast and furious, and the great delight
of all is to wait for a favourable opportunity to spring upon
the watcher's back and bring him to the ground. He who
does this is for the time being safe according to the rules and
the others can rush in and buffet the seated player as they
please, till the watcher can resume his station. Another
favourite is that known as ku Gdmila (With the Camel). One
player bends forward, another comes behind him and also
bends down clutching the first round the waist, behind the
second come two or three more in a similar position. Another
is chosen as watcher and he, undoing his long sash, fastens
one end to the waist of the last of the four bending down, and
holds the other end himself driving this unwieldy camel
about. The members of the other side dart in and out first
on one side and then on the other, each attempting to elude
the watcher and jump on the camel's back, a proceeding
which most likely will bring all to the ground in inextricable
confusion. The watcher in the meantime runs about as far
on either side as the length of the sash allows and tries to hit
one of the others with his foot. If he succeeds the other
side have to make up a camel and the one hit becomes the
watcher. In this game too hits upon the hand do not count.
The third most popular game is that called Stun Gutso, which
will be recognised as a Greek name meaning At the Lame
Man. The players divide into two parties and mark out with
stones a space which in area is probably equal to about a
quarter of a lawn-tennis court. At one point on the edge of
this a sort of base is marked off. In the base the players of
one side stand while the others move freely about the rest of
the space marked off. Then those in the base each in turn
come hopping about the rest of the area and try to hit one
of the others with foot or hand anywhere, but on their hands.
The hopper must not change the foot on which he hops nor
must he put his foot to the ground. If he breaks this rule
his innings is over and another member of the side takes his
place and so on till all have had an innings or till all the other
party have been caught. The side in the field may run and

56 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

dodge where and how they please within the marked area,
but if they move outside it they count as caught. WTien one
side has finished its innings as the hopping side, the other goes
in and the winning side is the one which has caught most of
its opponents. If all one side are caught the winners say
that they hdgard samaru (have put a saddle) upon them,
meaning thereby that their opponents are httle better than
mules or donkeys. This indignity the losers have to wash
out by standing treat with sweets or some other refreshment.
Other common games are leapfrog known as skamnakia,
another Greek name meaning small stools, and a game con-
sisting in a competition to see who can jump furthest after
giving two hops from a marked starting-point. This which is
called Arsarire la Treil'a (Leaping the Third) is a more energetic
game than it sounds, and a short run is allowed. These are
the games most usually played by the boys of Samarina, but
of course not the only ones.

Of all forms of amusement dancing is the most usual.
Apart from the big festivals when the great village dances
take place and weddings which are marked by much rather
ceremonial dancing, picnics and most entertainments end
with a dance. To the unskilled eye the dances are of the
usual South Balkan type, but a little study shows that Vlach
dances, although probably none of them can be considered as
peculiarly Vlach, may be divided into two classes. The first
class are the ring dances at the great village festivals when the
greater part of the population will join in (Plate IV 2). Some
Vlach villages, for instance Turia, hold such dances every
Sunday through the summer. These village dances consist
of two or more rings in which all join hands and move round
slowly in a circle. The leader of the ring, the man on the
extreme right, is the only one who indulges in any elaborate
or vigorous step, for the others merely follow him round imi-
tating his steps in a slow and solemn manner. The first or
inner ring consists only of men, and the second or outer ring
consists of women. However many rings there may be they
always come in this order, and the sexes are always kept
apart. In such dances the number of performers is limited

LIFE AT SAMARINA 57

only by the number of rings it is possible to make up in the
space available. On such occasions even the leader will
refrain from being too elaborate or energetic in his steps, for
the village dances are always to some extent of a ceremonial
nature. The only occasion on which the two sexes dance
together in the same ring is in the solemn dance at a wedding
in which the whole bridal party takes part when the newly
married pair come out of the church at the end of the service.
This dance which is always performed directly outside the
church door is fully described below. The other class of dances
are those in vogue at the feasting before and after a wedding
and at all other entertainments. Here too there is a formal
system to be followed. The bridegroom or host will invite
two men to dance, for only men dance with men and women
with women, except in the case of brothers and sisters and
first cousins, and at weddings when any of the men holding
official positions may invite the bride to dance. The two
men will stand up in the centre of the company opposite one
another and dance a singasto, which like most of the names of
Vlach dances is said to be a corruption of a Greek name.
At first the two dancers pace solemnly and slowly backwards
and forwards in front of one another, then as the music is
gradually played faster and faster they begin to twirl round
and jump about moving about the room, but always keeping
in front of one another. This being over the two hold hands
and dance a ring dance together, first one leading and then
another the other. Thus each pair that is invited to dance
goes in all through three separate dances. When they begin
the ring dances the leader can call upon the musicians to
play whatever kind of dance he prefers, as a rule the one he
thinks he can dance best. The skill of the leader in the ring
dances is not shewn by his following the regular steps accu-
rately, but in the number and beauty of the variations he can
introduce. Since, as a mocker might say, these variations
usually consist in prancing about on one leg or in whirling
wildly round, it will be seen that to do this in time with the
music demands considerable adroitness. But the local critics
do not approve of wild dancing, even prancing and whirling

58 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

about must be done decently and in order. The quieter kinds
of ring dances are the Serha and the Vulghariko (Bulgarian),
and the more energetic dances are those known as the Tshamh,
the Arvanitovlakhiko and the Karahatatiko, which are re-
puted to be of Albanian origin, and certainly the Tshamh
takes its name from the part of Albania between Tepeleni
and Yannina known to the Greeks as Tshamurid. Women
of course do not dance these energetic dances ; the ring dance
usually performed by them is the Sirto, supposed to be de-
rived from the Ancient Greek dance of the same name. This
is a slow and stately dance, but rather dreary. A ring of
women dancing the sirto to the tune of a monotonous song
sung slowly in their wailing voices always has an effect of
weird melancholy. All the dances are of an elementary three-
step type, and the variations introduced are mere adornments
to suit individual taste, but the sirto has few if any variations.
In Samarina and apparently in most large villages local talent
is easily capable of providing music which is taught at the
higher grade schools. At weddings and festivals and other
important occasions itinerant musicians are employed (Plate
XVII). It is worth noting that among the Vlachs such
musicians whatever their race, and they are now usually
Greeks, are invariably spoken of as Gipsies, just as the Greeks
call all shepherds Vlachs. There do not seem ever to have
been any local native musical instruments, at least if such
were ever employed for producing dance music they have
totally disappeared. The itinerant musicians and the local
talent use European instruments. A band of itinerant
musicians consists at least of three performers, the leader
with a clarionet, a fiddler, and a boy with a drum or cymbal
to accentuate the time for the guidance of the dancers. A
band may consist of more, but the leader is always the one
who has the clarionet and acts as conductor beating time for
the others by waving about his head and clarionet as he plays.
When music cannot be procured, singing takes its place and
this probably was the original custom. The shepherds who
are natural and good dancers always dance to songs and have
no native instrument of their own except flutes, which they

LIFE AT SAMARINA 59

do not use for dance music. The probability that there were
never any local musical instruments is strengthened by the
fact that as a rule at the big village dances all dance to certain
well-kno^^^l songs only. The great annual dance at Samarina
at the festival of the Assumption is known as Tsheatshlu from
the song to which it is danced. Further at the ceremonial
dance performed by the bridal party, when the newly married
pair come out of the church, the musicians are driven away
for the time being and the party dance to songs only. The
music is of the usual Levantine type which is familiar to any
who have heard the droning folk songs of Greece and the
Balkans. As to how far any particular dance can be assigned
to any one race we cannot say, probably none are really
Vlach ; but there seems to be a consensus of opinion, at least
locally, that certain dances are Albanian.

CHAPTER IV
THE COSTUxMES OF SAMARINA

Branlu larg, tsipunea lunga
Shi katshula fara funda.

His sash too wide, his coat too long, his fez without a tassel.

Vlach S >ng

ALTHOUGH it may be said that the Vlachs of Samarina
have a national costume, yet even this has been subject
to changes of fashion, and curiously enough the men's
dress seems to have been more affected by this than the
women's. But bachelors perhaps are not well adapted for
understanding the mysteries of fashion in regard to the dress of
women. The typical dress of the Vlach is that regularly
worn by shepherds and muleteers, and as a rule by all the
men who have not adopted European costume. In the follow-
ing account we will first describe a simple, everyday costume
such as is worn by the young muleteer in Plate VII 3, and
then shew how this may be made more elaborate and elegant
for Sundays and festivals. Over a thick flannel vest a man
will put on a long, full shirt reaching to the knees, called
kdmeashd. This is of printed cotton usually pale blue or
grey in colour, and has a square skirt fully pleated in front
and quite plain behind. The result of the pleating is that a
man, when fully dressed, seems to be wearing a variety of
kilt or fustanella which is really the skirt of his shirt. It is
quite likely that the Albanian fustanella, which was adopted
by the Greeks after their liberation in 1821 as their national
costume, is a development of this pleated shirt. The shirt
may have narrow sleeves buttoned at the wrist or full loose
sleeves, but this depends on whether a waistcoat with or

6u

PLATE VII

I. OI.U MAN WITH HKEECHES AND SARKA

2. MAN WITH TAI.AGANU

3. MULETEER WIIH MAI.I.IOTL' 4. YOUNG MAN WITH I'ALTf)

SAMARINA: MEN'S COSTUMES

THE COSTUMES OF SAMARINA 6i

without sleeves is to be worn. On his legs he puts a pair of
homespun leggings reaching to the middle of the thighs and
called tshoaritsl. These are tied round below the knees with
garters, kdltsuvetsi, and bound at the bottom with braid.
This braiding is a great feature of the Vlach garments and
though in appearance like braid is really an embroidered
edge made by needlework with a very narrow kind of silken
braid. Consequently the better the clothes the more braiding
there is, for to make it well requires much expenditure of
time, money and skill. The great point of the leggings is
that they should fit tightly to the calf so as to shew the
leg to the best advantage, and neatly round the ankle rather
like a spat. Next comes a double-breasted waistcoat of jean
with or without sleeves according to the type of shirt worn.
This, which is called dzhihadane, fits very tightly across the
chest and is fastened with hooks and eyes. Over this is worn
a garment of homespun like a frock-coat that reaches to the
knees, but does not meet in front and has no sleeves. This
is called tsipunc and is girt round the waist with a leather belt
over which is wound a long woollen sash known as hrdnu.
This is the universal foundation of the Vlach male costume
over which a variety of outer garments may be worn. In
Plate VII 3 a muleteer is shewn wearing the ordinary week-
day great-coat of his class. This is a thick coat known as
malliotu and is a little longer than the tsipune which it hides.
It has tasselled buttons and can be made to meet in front ;
at the back of the neck is a small conical hood which can be
drawn over the head in bad weather. It is trimmed round
the edges with red or blue braid, and has sleeves which are slit
half-way down on the inside, so that if the wearer does not
want to put his arms in them he m^ay thrust them through at
the shoulder and then the sleeves will hang loose down the
back. On his feet he has particoloured woollen socks {Idpudzi)
knitted by the women from wool spun and dyed at home. The
peculiarity of these socks is that they are usually knitted
from the toe upwards with bent needles. His shoes are
tsdruh'i, the usual peasant shoe of the Southern Balkans. These
have rather thin soles well studded with nails, hardly any

62 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

heel, and turned-up toes decorated with a large tassel. On
his head he wears a white fez, kdtshuld, without a tassel. If
the weather be cold or wet the muleteer will slip on over all
these garments a thick loose cape of goat's hair called tdmhare
(Plate XI i). This is so thick that it is rainproof and sticks
out all round so as to throw the rain off the lower limbs,
although it does not reach much lower than the knees. The
sleeves are sewn up at the end, but are slit through at the
shoulder like those of the malliotii. There is a conical hood
attached to the back of the neck ready to be drawn over the
head, and it does not require fastening in front for it overlaps
well and keeps its place by its own weight. This is the ordinary
week-day costume of a young man, but for high days and
holidays he will naturally put on his best. Then he will
change the coloured shirt for a white one of fine linen, and
with an enormous number of pleats in front, for the more
pleats a shirt has the smarter it is (Plate VH 4). In fact it
takes something like six yards of linen to make one. The
jean waistcoat will be replaced by one of velveteen, the woollen
sash by one of silk, and the white fez b}' a red one with a tassel.
Then the malliotu will be discarded for a palto (Plate VII 4),
a great -coat of thick homespun with a velvet collar, full skirts
and a waist, cut more or less after the model of a European
great-coat of which it is a local variation. The full skirts
of the palto are required in order to accommodate the pleats
of the tsipune behind. Like the shirt the tsipune is smarter
in proportion to the number of its pleats {/dine) behind. The
ordinary everyday tsipune will have only nine or ten pleats,
and not much braiding. The Sunday tsipune will ha\'e as
many as twenty pleats and very elaborate needlework braid-
ing down the edges in front ; in these two points the great
beauty of a really elegant garment lies. The tsdriih'i of week-
days also will be replaced by a pair of slip-on black shoes
with low heels made rather like European walking shoes,
except that they do not lace up and have very pointed toes.

A man of middle age will wear a costume that is practically
the same as that just described, but there are some garments
which are thought to be more suited to an older man. This

PLATE /■///

-< g d

THE COSTUMES OF SAMARINA 63

is partly due to the age of the man and his clothes. That is
to say he wore such garments when he was younger because
they were then in fashion, and has not changed them since
or rather never worn them out, because these clothes of home-
spun are exceedingly durable. Such a man will almost always
wear a white shirt, unless he happens to practise a trade
which renders a coloured shirt more economical in the matter
of washing. His waistcoat will be sleeveless and most probably
of broadcloth, though of course the colour and material of a
waistcoat is a matter of individual taste. Over his tsipune
he will wear a short jacket with slit sleeves similar to those of
the malliotu : this is of homespun and called either a pishli or
a kundushu (Plate VHI i). He need not wear anything
above this unless the weather is cold or wet, when he can put
on a malliotu and a tdmbare. But for festivals he may wear a
long coat of homespun cut like a malliotu, but not so long
and with sleeves and hood quite the same. This which cannot
meet in front is called tdldganu (Plate VH 2), and is really a
more elegant kind of malliotu. Old men will wear instead of
the tdldganu a garment known as sarkd which is now out of
fashion and so confined to the old (Plate VH i) . This resembles
the tdldganu in length, in the hood, and in the fact that it does
not fasten in front, but the point of difference is the sleeve.
In the sarkd the sleeves are loose and triangular, falling freely
down over the arm. From their appearance they are known
as ears, urekl'e. Sometimes too an old man, and occasionally
a younger man in winter, will don a pair of full knee breeches
tight at the knees, but loose round the thighs, called shilivdri.
These cover the kilting of the shirt and the upper part of the
leggings (Plate VH i). The universal colour for the national
costume is now dark blue (indigo), but once it used to be white.
The shepherds, who are always the last to retain old customs,
and some old men, always wear leggings, tsipune and all of
white homespun with a white shirt to match (Plate VHI 2),
which in the case of shepherds is of coarse hand-made linen.
The main reason for the change in the colour of the costume
from white to blue is the expense entailed in keeping white
clothes clean and good. White is naturally more picturesque,

64 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

but not so practical a colour for those engaged in trade. Now-
adays the only fashionable men who wear white clothes are
bridegrooms. For his wedding every bridegroom is expected
to get himself a full national costume of white homespun
which for the rest of his life serves as his very best clothes
(Plate Vni 3). The leggings, tsipune and pishli are the same
as in the ordinary clothes, but more elaborate and mth more
braiding, and the skirts of the tsipune are as full as they can be.
The bridegroom's white shirt is pleated do^vn the front of the
chest because he wears an open waistcoat. This is of velvet
and embroidered with the fine narrow braid so heavily that
the ground can hardly be seen. So much skill is expended on
the making of such a waistcoat that in spite of the small
amount of stuff used, for it is tight and is open in front, twenty
shillings is quite a common price. It is noticeable that the
Pindus Vlachs from Avdhela, Samarina and Perivoli now
settled in the Verria district, have given up the use of the
kilted shirt and the tsipune and have adopted instead the palto
and the breeches which they make of brown not blue homespun
(Plate XXni). Boys do not from the very beginning wear
the full tsipune costume, but a far simpler kind of dress. Over
their underclothes they put on a long robe of jean rather like
a dressing-gown. This has sleeves and is lined and fastened
in front with hooks and eyes or buttons. It reaches to the
knees and is girt at the waist with a belt. On his legs the boy
will wear stockings and not socks, and as a rule nothing on
his head unless it be Sunday when he will have a red fez. Over
this long robe known as andri he can wear either a malliotu or a
palto (Plate XI 2). When he reaches the age of twelve or
fourteen the andri is considered too short for a growing lad
and so on his legs he puts homespun leggings of the usual type.
The next stage is reached when he is about seventeen and is
promoted to the full tsipune dress. The andri costume was
once the ordinary garment of the town Vlach or shopkeeper,
though now it is only very occasionally worn by such. Prob-
ably they wore this costume, which is perhaps in origin Turkish
or at least oriental, in the times when it was considered a
privilege by the christians to be allowed to dress like Turks.

PLATE l.\

THE COSTUMES OF SAMARINA 65

Owing to recent events in the Balkans the next stage in the
development of Vlach costume will be the abandonment of
the fez, hitherto universally worn. The Thessalian Vlachs
have already created a variety of fez which is fairly popular.
This is small and shaped like a cone with the peak cut off.
It is white and heavily embroidered with yellow silk, and
when worn cocked on the back of the head, gives its wearer a
very jaunty look. It is called a keliposhe (Plate XI i, 2).
In Thessaly or Greek territory the Vlachs do not as a rule wear
the fez, but a small round cap of astrachan with a flat top.
This may become the national headgear when the fez ceases to
be worn.

In women's clothes there is not so much variety and there is
at present no change like that from the malUotu to the paltd
If the women's dress changes at all in the future there is most
likely to be a general abandonment of their own local costume
in favour of one purely European in origin. A woman when
working about her house usually goes barefoot, for stockings
and shoes will be put on only for high days and holidays. The
shoes are of a slip-on type and not very strongly made ; in fact
on journeys when the families are moving in the spring the
women will frequently take off their shoes and walk along
barefoot, since they find this more comfortable. The main
garment worn by all women, as the foundation of their costume,
is a simple frock all in one piece and without much waist. It
is made of various cloths, which we are unable to describe
precisely, known under the generic name of katfe, and their
patterns are those which were common in England some thirty
or forty years ago. This is what we were told when we sent
some samples of katfe to Manchester asking if such could be
procured now. Probably the stuffs of this kind now used in
Samarina and the other Vlach villages are of continental
manufacture, and some may even be made at Salonica or
elsewhere in the Balkans. A bride will wear a frock of white
silk (Plate XVII) and every girl is supposed to have as part of
her trousseau another silken frock of a dark colour for second
best wear (Plate XVIII 2). The system is that every girl is
given as part of her trousseau as many frocks as she is thought
5

66 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

likely to need for the rest of her married life. Only widows
or elderly matrons will wear black frocks. Over her frock a
young woman whether married or unmarried will wear a tsikettd
which as its name implies is a short sleeveless j acket of a zouave
type, not meeting in front (Plate IX i). The tsikettd is of
fine homespun and heavily decorated with gold braid and
needlework. Round the waist will be a belt with two large
silver buckles of filigree work. If she wears a tsikettd a girl
should not wear any other outer garment, and in fact the
tsikettd is usually worn only on Sundays and festivals by the
younger women. The girl, who wears a tsikettd on such days,
will on week days wear nothing but the ordinary frock with an
apron. The apron is a most necessary part of a woman's
costume and whatever else she wears an apron must be worn.
There are of course week-day aprons and Sunday aprons. If
the tsikettd be not worn the girl will put on a dulumd directly
over her frock (Plate IX 2, X) and this garment is to the
women what the tsipune is to the men. It has no sleeves, does
not meet in front, and is exactly like a man's tsipune except
in length, for it reaches to the ankles. It is decorated round
the edge with needlework braiding and the upper edges on
either side above the waist are ornamented with a row of oval
silver buttons set very close together. But such elaboration
is as a rule reserved for the best dulumd to be worn at festivals.
Like the tsipune the dtilumd is girt in at the waist by a belt
with silver buckles below which hangs the apron. The dulutnd
is of dark blue homespun like the tsipune and is a garment for
every day wear. But when the housewife on Sunday puts on
her best dulumd, her stockings and her best apron she has two
other garments which she may put on. She may wear either
a sarkd or a palto (Plate X) . The latter is a long, loose coat of
black broad-cloth reaching to the knees, but not meeting in
front. It has sleeves and round the edges is trimmed with fur.
The sarkd is a somewhat similar long, loose coat, sleeveless and
not meeting in front. It is black and trimmed with broad red
braid round the edges and has braided decoration on the
shoulders and on the skirt behind. It is a striking garment,
but the great effect of it is from behind, for in front practically

THE COSTUMES OF SAMARINA 67

nothing of it can be seen. It must be admitted that on the
whole the clothes of the Vlach women show less good taste than
those of the men, and as for headgear they have none except
a black kerchief twisted round their heads. The women
obtain more elegance, as they imagine, by piling garment on
garment, for when they put on their best clothes for Sundays
they put on as many petticoats as they can carry. This has
the effect, which is much admired, of making their skirts and
the sarM from the waist downward stick out crinoline fashion.
In reality in the full glory of their festal garb they seem more
like ungainly bundles of clothes than ladies of fashion and since
they never wear corsets the effect is clumsy in the extreme.
On the other hand the simple character of the tsikettd cosiMme is
rather picturesque, but any Vlach girl who looks at all pretty
in her native dress must be really rather good looking, even
when allowance is made for the fact that a native dress from
its very quaintness gives a certain charm to its wearer.

The Vlach costume makes no difference between summer
and winter. Really these heavy garments of homespun are
ideal for a rough winter climate, but the Vlach will wear them
in July as well. The same clothes are also worn day and
night, except that at night some of the heavier outer garments
such as the malliotu, palto and sarkd will be taken off. Other-
wise, both men and women, when they go to bed, first shut
all the windows — the night air is so dangerous — and then bury
themselves in piles of heavy rugs and blankets strewn on the
floor. Yet for all their avoidance of the chill night air these
same people will sleep out in the open at any time of year in
almost any weather with nothing more than a rug and a
tdmhare. Contrariness can go no further. The costume of
the men is in some ways practical for a mountain folk. It is
thick, durable and leaves the movements of the legs free, in
fact it has all the advantages of the Highlander's kilt and plaid.
On the other hand it has considerable disadvantages ; it is
heavy especially in the folds hanging from the waist behind,
it is tight about the body and the thickness of the stuff, which
is useful in winter and in wet weather as being nearly rainproof,
is a serious drawback in the summer. Further the number of

68 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

the garments and the compHcated method of wearing them
with their fastenings of hooks and eyes make dressing and un-
dressing not so easy. Still for the mountain country, which is
the Vlach's native land, it is a good costume granted that
washing all over and undressing are not things to be done every
day.

PLATE X

CHAPT^ER V
GOVERNMENT AND TRADE, CHURCHES AND HOUSES

nivTe BXa^^ot eva Tra^api.

Five Vlachs make a market.

Greek Proverb

THE Balkan Wars of 1912-13 and the subsequent
division of the territories that composed Turkey in
Europe, have altered the political status of Samarina
for it is now included in Greece. Thus it seems worth while
to record how it and similar Vlach villages w^ere governed in
Turkish times. The Vlachs scattered about the Balkan
regions will eventually become assimilated to the dominant
race of the country in which their homes are incorporated.
Under the Turks however owing to the feuds of the rival
political propagandas which endeavoured to absorb each for
itself the bulk of the inhabitants of European Turkey, the
Vlachs preserved at least the semblance of a separate national
unit, and in their hill villages were in ordinary times almost
autonomous. The system of the Turkish government, such
as it was, does not seem to have been applied at any one par-
ticular time, but rather to have gro\^Ti up gradually and to
have been based to some extent on the old local custom,

Samarina form^ed part of the kaza of Ghrevena and thus,
as a part of the sanjak of Serfije, was a minor unit of the vilayet
of Monastir. It lay on the borders of two vilayets, for the
two villages immediately to the north and south, Furka and
Briaza, were under Yannina. Lying as it does off the track of
any main route the village was little troubled by Turkish
government officials. The immediate power of the Sublime
Porte was represented by a sergeant or a corporal and four

other gendarmes. Occasionally during the summer patrols

69

70 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

consisting of fifty or so infantry under a subaltern would visit
the village and stay a few days while on a fruitless brigand
hunt. One Sunday we heard a Young Turk officer make a
speech in Greek to the assembled village after church on the
benefits and ideals of the Ottoman constitution. Other
representatives of the government were confined to the occa-
sional visits of tax collectors to receive the tithes due on saw
mills, trade profits and the like. Another government official
was the preventive man whose duty it was to stop the import
of illicit tobacco which comes from the Berat district. This
latter official could be a native of Samarina, but the others
were all strangers and as a rule Albanians, Mohammedans of
course, or Valakhadhes, though after 1908 the appearance of
Turkophone christian gendarmes from Anatolia caused some
surprise. In the village itself its own local government was
in the hands of the mukhtars or head men of whom there were
five. Four of these were elected by the Greek party and
each represented one of the four parishes into which the village
is divided, St Mary the Great, St Mary the Less, St Elijah
and St Athanasius. The fifth was the mukhtar of the Rou-
manian or nationalist party. Although it was not till 1905
that the Vlachs of the Turkish Empire obtained their recogni-
tion as a separate nationality from the Sublime Porte, yet as
early as 1895 the Roumanian party in Samarina is said to
have succeeded in procuring from the provincial authorities
communal rights. These five mukhtars acted together in the
name of the whole village and no transaction was valid unless
approved by all five. It was their duty to appoint watchmen
(Plate XI i), to attend to the water supply and to make local
byelaws. But after all they had no funds at their disposal
except such as could be obtained by public subscription or
from the wardens of the churches who would make grants
for any work to be done in their own parish. In 1910 the
bridge on the road to the saw mills over the ravine near the
Shoput al Dabura required rebuilding. A committee took
the matter up and went round the village explaining the
object and asking for subscriptions. When enough had been
collected, woodmen were hired to cut the necessary pines high

GOVERNMENT AND TRADE 71

up on Gorguru. Then when these were ready the young men
including schoolmasters, especially those of the parish of St
Elijah, which was the one most concerned in the bridge, went
out on Sundays and feast days and dragged the heavy timbers
down to the bridge ready for the carpenters to begin their work.
In this way public works of great utility have been carried
through.

The watchmen, of whom there were usually four, had to see
that people from other villages did not pasture their flocks or
mules or cut timber in Samarina territory. They also watched
the woods of K'urista in which nothing is allowed to pasture,
and any other pasture ground which was reserved for the time
being. For instance regularly every year the muleteers
agree to set aside a considerable space of pasture ground near
the village where no one is allowed to pasture sheep or mules
till the 15th of August. The object of this is to ensure that
there should be good pasture close to the village for the mules
of those who come up for the festival of the Assumption.
Another local village offtcial was the crier who by crying La
Hani and elsewhere about the village made known to the
inhabitants the decrees of their rulers and also advertised
property lost and found.

Another institution of Samarina that deserves mention is
the NsoXa/a ^ufj^ccpiv/jg, a sort of society which on holidays
and festivals indulges in merrymaking. But it has also a
practical side and its members unite in carrying out something
for the good of the community in general. For instance they
constructed in 191 1 a small bridge on the Ghrevena road a
little distance outside the village over a small stream, and it
was planning the restoration of some disused drinking fountains
on the same road. This society consists only of members of the
Greek party and so in 191 2 another society was founded
called Ilpoohog in which members of both political parties
could join. This beyond electing its first officers and com-
mittee has had little opportunity of doing anything so far,
except to state its aims and objects.

Like the majority of the Vlach villages in the mountains
Samarina supports itself by trade and not by farming, though

72 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

there was a time and that not so very long ago when Samarina
did to some extent engage in agriculture. Of other trades
there are few requiring technical skill which the Vlach does
not consider it beneath his dignity to engage in. Of technical
trades there are two which the Pindus Vlachs and their cousins
around Verria do not practise. They are not tin or copper
smiths, for these arc gipsy trades, nor are they masons. In the
Verria district houses are built by Bulgar masons who come
from the villages in the plain between Verria and Vodhena,
and agricultural labour is done by Koniari Turks from the
villages in the plain of Kailar. In Pindus the masons are
Greeks from villages such as Kerasova, Burbusko (in Vlach
Brubiska), Zhupan and so on. For instance an inscription
recording the building of the church of St Athanasius at
Muskopofe in 1724 says that the masons came from Krimini,
a Greek village near Tshotili. Metsovo is the only Pindus
village which we have visited whose inhabitants are masons.

Though at the monastery of Samarina, which lies lower
than the village and is inhabited all the year through, maize
and rye are grown, and the abbot has lately planted a vineyard,
it is now some thirty years since agriculture was undertaken by
the villagers of Samarina itself. But there are clear signs
that the village was once agricultural to some extent. Near
the church of Aigl'a is a grass-grown threshing floor, and near
the place called Tshuka which lies on the Morminde ridge
below the Ghrevena road near the K'atra N'agra there are also
threshing floors and traces of enclosed spaces, which were once
ploughed. At H'ilimodhi on the borders of Samarina terri-
tory towards Dusko Samarina possessed a chiftlik where
some thirty to forty families remained year in and year out.
There corn was grown, and from here Samarina was partly
supplied with the agricultural products which it now has to
import from the plains. Why they abandoned this chiftlik,
which still is part of Samarina territory, and serves now only
as a sheep run is inexplicable.

The land which comprises the territory of Samarina is
owned by the whole village in common. Every member of the
village has the right to pasture his stock except in the areas

GOVERNMENT AND TRADE 73

which the community has declared closed for the time being.
Any inhabitant of the village can cut timber and fuel where he
pleases in the forests except in the forbidden woods of K'urista.
Those possessing sheep or saw mills had to pay the dues on
sheep and cut timber enforced by the Turkish government,
and every plank cut to be sold outside the village had to bear
an official mark to show that the dues had been paid. The
only privately owned lands in Samarina are the lots on the site
of the village itself and consist of houses, gardens and meadows.
These are all fenced in and can be bought and sold and are held
with title deeds. All the rest of the land is common property
and can neither be bought nor sold, but every villager has the
right to enclose any piece of ground he likes for a meadow, and
so long as he keeps up the fence it is reserved for him and he
can call in the village watchmen to drive off intruders. Wlien
any stranger, shepherd or muleteer, camps for a night on
Samarina territory on his way elsewhere, the watchmen
demand a small payment for the right of pasturage for his
mules or sheep, and are entitled to enforce their claim by
impounding some of his stock.

The other trades we may divide into two classes, those
practised locally in the village and those which they only work
at in the towns in the plains. But some natives of Samarina,
who engage in trades of this latter class, practise them in the
summer in Samarina to supply their fellow-countrymen. The
only trade, and that not a common one, for which there is no
demand at Samarina, is the gunsmith's. Trades which can be
practised in the village, but of course to a far greater extent in
the towns in the plains are, boot and shoe making, tailoring,
milling, the making of pack saddles for mules, the making of
knives and blacksmith's work in general, the making of sweets
and pastry, carpentering and chair making. Another fairly
common trade, although from its nature it is practised more in
the towns than in the village itself, is that of silversmith and
watchmaker. They make the silver filigree work for the big
buckles and buttons worn by the women and set the coins given
for betrothal gifts as necklaces or earrings. The metal which
they use is obtained by melting down gold or silver coin. A girl

74 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

who wants a pair of earrings will take a Turkish pound to the
goldsmith and he retaining some of the gold as his payment
will work the rest into the ornament desired. With these
trades we may include the keeping of cafes, and khans or food
shops. The keeper of a food shop will sell meat raw and
roasted, raki, wine, beer in bottles from Salonica, cheese,
bread and petroleum. The only professional men in the
village are the three or four doctors, and the schoolmasters
who including both Hellenic and Roumanian amount to about
a dozen. A trade of more recent introduction is that of photo-
grapher which is followed by two or three. The capitalists of
the village are the general store keepers who sell anything
from dyes and writing paper to draperies and scents. They
also indulge in merchanting ; they will buy up woollen stuffs
of local manufacture or sheepskins and cheese, and send them
in big lots to towns such as Yannina or Monastir, or else sell
them at the fairs mentioned below. But of all the trades that
of muleteer is one of the most typical. One of the commonest
sights on the roads in Macedonia or North Thessaly, and
Epirus are the long trains of loaded mules and the Vlach mule-
teers. A muleteer will own from three or four to nine or ten
animals, one of which will be a horse. The horse which is
more lightly loaded than the mules, carries the muleteer and
his own personal property, and the mules are trained to follow
it, for the master as he rides along at the head of his caravan
will treat the mules with broken scraps of bread. His pro-
perty on the horse consists of a goat's hair cape, a leather bag,
containing a hammer, horse-shoes and nails, and a pair of
saddle-bags, one full of barley for the mules, and the other stuffed
with bread, roast meat, and a wooden box containing cheese,
and last but not least a wooden flask [kofa) filled with wine
(Plate n 2). In addition each mule carries its nosebag on its
saddle, and their master a small metal flask of raki. The mule-
teers are not always content to carry goods for hire, and in fact
they cannot always find such business. In such cases they
do a little merchanting on their own account. A muleteer
will load up at Samarina with planks from the saw mills (the
principal export of the village), and take them down to Greece

GOVERNMENT AND TRADE 75

to Larissa and Tirnavos. There he sells them and buys instead
olives or olive oil which he takes to Kozhani or Shatishta,
where he will sell his load again and replace it with corn or
wine to bring up to Samarina. One muleteer alone can work
unaided four or five mules, loading them with the aid of his
fellows, for they nearly always travel in parties, or with his
furtutird. If he has more than five mules he will have one of
his sons to help him : for instance a man and a boy of fourteen
can easily work eight or nine mules.

The most typical local trades of Samarina are those con-
nected with the saw mills, sheep and wool. In days gone by
the pine woods of Samarina were far more extensive than they
are to-day. Formerly the whole of Ghumara, the Morminde
ridge, the eastern slopes of Gurguru and the valley above
H'ilimodhi were thick with pine woods. But now all the best
trees have been cut, and though these parts are still wooded,
yet goats and sheep are allowed to pasture at will amongst the
woods and so no young trees have a chance of growing. To-
day there is a saw mill by the Skordhei, but the centre of the
timber trade is at the four or five saw mills in the Vale Kama.
Timber is only exported in the form of cut planks, and there
is a great deal of waste in cutting the trees. The tops and
branches are not put to any use, and much good timber, which
might have been utilised had nature been a little less prodigal
in endowing these mountains with woods, is left to rot on the
ground. In the village itself long beams made from the more
slender trunks roughly shaped are used for roofing, and the
convex pieces sawn from the outsides of logs, that are to be
sawn into planks are used for fencing and roofing. The saw
mills are worked by water power (Plate XIII 2). A mill leet
is taken off the stream some way above the site of the mill and
run in a shallow channel [kdnale] to a pool situated on the hill
side directly above the mill ; into this other streams may be
collected from springs near by to secure a sufficient volume of
water. Since the volume of water is small the fall must be
greater in proportion in order to obtain enough power to work
the water wheel. Consequently from the outlet of the pool,
which is lined with rough planks and puddled with clay, a long

76 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

enclosed shoot of wood [kdnitd) runs right down on to the wheel
itself. The wheel is small and pl&.ced low down against the
pile substructure of the mill proper, and is connected with the
gear that runs the saws by a system of belting. The saw
blades, of which there are two or three, project from the floor
of the mill. Against them the log to be sa\\Ti is rolled into
position on a sort of cradle which by an ingenious arrangement
moves towards the saws which work vertically. Attached to
each saw mill is also a wooden shed built of waste planks where
the sawyers sleep. These are often closed with ingeniously
constructed wooden locks. Down the mountain side near the
mill are several shoots for rolling down the logs, and from the
bottom of the shoots are inclined ways of pine trunks for rolling
the logs easily into the mill.

Samarina also possesses several ordinary water mills for
grinding corn and maize. These are either in the village itself
on one of the small streams running through it, or in the valley
below where the river of Samarina gives a plentiful supply of
water. \\'hen the grain is bought from the muleteers who
bring it up and sell it in the misohori, the women sift it and
sort out all impurities and if necessary even wash it. It is left
in the courtyard of the house in the sun to dry for three or four
hours with a small child to watch it and drive off chickens,
and then it is rebagged and sent to the mill. For this purpose
every miller keeps a donkey which he sends round in charge of
a small boy to bring in the grain. The mills both as regards the
leet and the tall narrow shoot for the water resemble the saw
mills in arrangement ; but the wheel is placed horizontally to
avoid the difficulty of transferring the power from a vertical
wheel to the horizontal mill stones. The gearing is mostly of
wood and the mill stones are not one stone, but are composed
of many small pieces ingeniously fitted together and bound
with iron hoops. Most millers also possess a hdtal'e and
drdshteala, the special apparatus necessary for washing the
woollen fabrics when they are woven.

Sheep rearing is still an important trade at Samarina, but
not so important as formerly. Up to 1877 Samarina pos-
sessed about eighty thousand head of sheep, but to-day has

GOVERNMENT AND TRADE 77

some seventeen thousand only. The diminution has been
due to two causes. The rising of 1878 seriously injured the
Vlachs as the principal shepherds, and the people of Samarina
amongst them. Then the division of the Vlach country by
the cession of Thessaly to Greece erected a customs barrier
between the summer and winter pastures of the Samarina
shepherds. Further the proximity of the Samarina country
to the Greek frontier till 1912 rendered it easily liable to raids
from brigands who would have their base in Greek territory
where they were careful to keep within the law. Owing to
the difficulty of the country they could after an exploit com-
mitted in Turkish territory escape to Greece and immunity
and vice versa. This brigandage naturally concerned the
shepherds more than other people because the shepherd from
his trade is obliged to live out on the hills with his flocks far
away from gendarmes. Brigands would come to a sheepfold
and demand milk, bread and a roast lamb for supper. The
shepherd could not refuse, or the brigands would revenge
themselves by robbing him and perhaps by killing two or
three hundred ewes. Similarly should a patrol of gendarmerie
appear in pursuit of brigands the shepherd would have to feed
them, and to give information as to brigands anywhere near.
Should he refuse he would be beaten within an inch of his
life and perhaps cast into prison. If the brigands were to
hear that he had betrayed their whereabouts, they would
return at the first opportunity, and either kill the shepherd
or his flocks. In this state of affairs it will be seen that it
needs a bold and determined man to take up the peaceful
and Arcadian existence of shepherd, and it is small cause for
wonder if many shepherds have sold their flocks and adopted
other pursuits, while others not having much choice live hand
in glove with brigands.

About St George's Day which falls on the 23rd of April
O.S., the shepherds who winter in the Thessalian plains round
Trikkala, or between Larissa and Tirnavos or in the Potamia
district near Elassona prepare for moving to the mountains
for the summer. The lambs which have been born during
the winter in December or January are by this time weaned

yS THE NO]\IADS OF THE BALKANS

and capable of standing the journey. The flock which consists
of from five hundred to two thousand head is divided into
detachments. The ewes are divided into two classes, barren
(stearpe), and milch [aplikatori, or nidtritse), and these again
are subdivided according to colour into flocks of white and
black. The lambs and rams are likewise drafted into separate
flocks. When the mountain pastures are reached the head
shepherd sets up his sheepfold more or less in the same spot
as in former years, and while he remains in the village looking
after the sale of the produce, but visiting his fold almost every
day, the charge of the flocks and the butter and cheese
making devolve on his subordinates. The fold (kutaru)
proper (Plate XI 3) consists of a round enclosure fenced in
with thorns, branches and rough planks. At one end is a
wide entrance [ushe) which can easily be closed or watched.
Not quite opposite this a narrow exit {arugd) with a post in
the middle so that not more than two or three ewes can pass
out at a time. In front of this exit are placed four milking
stones arranged two and two as shown. The milkers sit on
these and as the ewes pass out seize them by the hind legs
and milk them into large tin pails {gdleata). This place, where
the milking stones are, is roofed in with rough planks on
rafters laid over forked sticks, and forms the porch of the
kashari proper, where the mysteries of cheese making are
carried on. This is a long oblong shed boarded in at the sides,
but open at the ends. In one corner is a locked cupboard
where made cheese can be kept, also bread and any imple-
ments not in use. Along one wall is a long, inclined wooden
table where cheese can be laid to drain. In the centre is a
rough hearth, under a hook hanging from the ceiling, and
walled in with stones on which are propped the pails in which
the milk is boiled. Along the other side will be a row of tall
slender tubs in which the cream is kept ready to be made
into cheese. From the roof beams are hanging several bags
containing half-made cheese from which the water is being
drained out. Most of the shepherds make but one kind of
cheese, kash kaval, which is bought up by merchants, sent to
Yannina and thence exported to Italy where it appears as

FLA TE XI

1. WATCHMAN IN KRIGAND COSTUME
WITH HIS PET LAMB

HU\ IN ANDRI AND
MALLIOTU

3. SAMARINA: MILKINd TIME AT A SHEEI'FOLD

GOVERNMENT AND TRADE 79

Caccia Cavallo. The making of this cheese is roughly as
follows. The milk is boiled with the addition of a little salt.
The resulting cream [alkd) is collected (sheep's milk is richer
in cream in proportion than cow's), and kept for some time
in one of the tubs. Then through a further process of boiling
and straining it is turned into ordinary white milk cheese.
This is shredded and reboiled, and then pressed into low,
round wooden moulds. It is again strained and dried, and
when hard it is taken out of the mould and placed on a board
under a weight to harden still further, and at the same time is
liberally salted till it has absorbed as much as it can. Then
it is ready for market : the heads (kapite) of cheese are packed
in rouleaux in sacks and so make their way by mule to Yannina.
The constant and profitable nature of the demand for this
kash kaval has caused the shepherds to confine their attention
to making this. The result is that ordinary white cheese and
butter are dear and scarce in Samarina where there are so
many sheep. A favourite kind of cheese sometimes made is
that called urdu (Gk. fLavovpt), which is produced by a different
process. Yiaurti {mdrkatu) is also made, and amongst the
poor a dish called gizd is popular which is made by boiling
butter milk. But butter milk [dald) is not common since butter
[umtu) is rarely made. From fresh milk a dish called lapte
grossu (thick milk) is procured by slightly turning it, and boiling
it till thick. As a rule when milk is boiled a little salt is added
to it. The shepherds continue this life in the hills till about the
day of St Demetrius, October 26th O.S. when they move down
to the plains for the winter. The ewes are milked up to the
end of July, and then gradually milk becomes scarcer, cheese
making stops and active work at the sheep fold ceases. The
fold does not serve as a shelter for the flock, but only as a
method of bringing them together. At night they sleep in the
open watched by savage dogs, which however are not taught
to drive the flock, but only to watch. At midday the flocks
and their attendant shepherds will be found asleep under
some large tree which gives enough shade to protect them
from the heat of the summer sun. The flock when it wanders
is led by an elderly ram with a bell. Towards the end of

8o THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

August Albanian dealers appear at Samarina to buy up worn
out ewes and rams to sell to butchers in the Berat, and El-
basan districts. Shearing takes place just before or just
after the spring migration to the hills. The sheep are not
washed before shearing, and they are never dipped, but on
the whole they keep very healthy. In 191 1 however both
sheep and goats throughout Macedonia and Thessaly suffered
severely from some disease which seemed to take the form of
an acute foot rot, and many died, and those which survived
were in very poor condition. Undoubtedly careful breeding
and a greater attention to cleanliness would produce much
better results. Yet all things considered the quality of the
cheese and mutton is excellent.

The wool trade is the most important trade of the village
and the one on which it mostly depends. Every spring when
the sheep are shorn the heads of families buy up quantities
of raw wool for their wives and daughters to work up during
the summer (Plate XH). When the village is reached the first
process is to pick over the wool by hand to remove the more
prominent impurities such as burrs, and smooth out some of
the tangles. Next the wool is washed and spread out in the
sun to dry, and is also kept in two qualities long thread and
short thread. When dry the wool is carded. The carder a
girl sits on one end of a long low kind of stool, in the other
end of which is fixed a carding comb [k'apHne). This is a
rectangular piece of wood with one side studded with small
nails, and it has a handle attached to one of the long sides.
The wool to be carded is laid on this fixed comb and the
operator draws it backwards and forwards with a similar
comb held in the hands till the wool is loose and fluffy. Wool
with short thread after carding is rolled up into loose lumps
ipitrika), and then spun on a spinning wheel {tshikrike) into
spools {tsdyi) of thread (tramd) for weaving. The spools are
wound off into large round balls, and this is the thread used
for setting up the warp on the loom. Other spools are wound
off again on to spindles and make the woof. Long thread
wool after carding is kept in loose lumps (apald), and then
spun on the spinning wheel into flock [floku). The spools of

PLATE X/I

GOVERNMENT AND TRADE 8i

this are wound into skeins [trdna) on a winder [lishkitoru) and
then dyed various colours. These skeins are used to make
the flock which is woven into the patterns of blankets, rugs
and mats. Other wool with long thread after being carded
is made into small lumps [sumo) and placed in handfuls [kairu]
on the distaff {furka) and spun by hand into thread (usturd)
for weaving flannels, and stuffs. The thread which is to be
dyed for wea\'ing varicoloured carpets and rugs is first wound
into skeins on the \\dnder, then after dyeing is placed on an
instrument called an anemi and from this wound into spools
to be placed in the shuttle {zvaltsd) for weaving. The principal
stuffs made are homespun {adhunta) which is usually white,
and two varieties of the same, one thin and fine called gar-
vanitshu which is usually black, the other a thick homespun
(garvano) with a heavy flock from which waterproof outer
coats and capes are made. Flannel [katasarku) is also made,
and many varieties of rugs and blankets. The rugs are called
tende or vilendze, and may be compared to heavy blankets
or coarse travelling rugs. They are made in lengths not quite
a yard wide and four to six lengths go to make one blanket.
The tents used on journeys are made of similar material, but
rather thicker, and are always composed of sLx lengths and
almost without exception the pattern consists of black and
white stripes. The patterns of the rugs fall into two main
kinds, both of which are geometrical. The first class is
bicoloured in black and white and consists of a series of white
diamonds bordered with black. In the centre of each diamond
is a double axe with a short shaft also in black. The other
patterns are of miscellaneous geometric types, and multi-
coloured, red, yellow, green, blue, etc. The rugs of the first
type of pattern are smoothly made with a thick flock, but
those of the second are more coarsely made and ornamented
with long tassel-like pieces of flock woven in here and there.
Both these kinds of rugs are however no longer in fashion,
for even Samarina has its fashions. To-day it is the custom
to make a mat-like kind of rug called tshorgd. These are
made in two sizes small for spreading on the floor to sit or
sleep on, and large to cover oneself with at night. These are
6

82 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

like thick woollen hearthrugs, and have a long, thick even
flock all over carefully woven into the fabric. They are
dyed indigo, or if not may be made with flock ready dyed
when they boast all the colours of the rainbow. One regret-
table feature is that the introduction of aniline dyes has
caused them to abandon the use of local vegetable dyes,
which gave far more artistic effects in colouring. Pillow
cases [kdpitin'i) are also made from the local wool, and in
these again the fashion has changed. Formerly the patterns
were simple and geometric and the fabric was of a blanket type.
To-day they are made of a carpet-like fabric, and decorated
with floral and bird designs of an earl}^ Victorian appearance
and executed on a red ground in blue, yellow and green aniline
colours. Further instead of the earlier rugs carpets are now
made with patterns somewhat similar to those of the modem
pillow cases. The carpets are made in lengths, borders and
all and the pattern is carefully calculated so that all should
join up properly when the whole is eventually put together.
Of similar fabric are the mantel borders, and door hangings
which are used to decorate the principal room on festivals
and other great occasions. A variety of garvano is made of
goat's hair and is used for making the capes used by shepherds
and muleteers. When made all the various rugs and stuffs
with the exception of the carpets are washed and shrunk.
The homespun and similar fabrics are treated in a beethng
mill [baial'e). This which is worked by water power (Plate
Xni i), is a low shed — occasionally it is in the open — on one
side of which are swung four heavy wooden hammers [tshokote)
so arranged on a notched wooden shaft that they work two
and two alternately. Along the other side is a narrow wooden
shelf sloping towards the hammer heads and on the same
level with them. On the other side of this shelf is a stout
wooden beam for the hammers to beat against. In this is
cut a narrow rill into which runs a small stream of water
taken off the mill leet. From this rill small holes are bored
leading on to the upper edge of the sloping shelf so that a
constant, but thin trickle of water can always be running on
to it. On the shelf is placed the stuff which has flrst been

GOVERNMENT AND TRADE 83

thoroughly wetted, and when the water is turned on to the
wheel the hammers swing to and fro two and two beating
the stuff against the beam behind it. With the constant
trickle of water the stuff is always kept wet. Thus it is beaten
firm and thick and smooth and at the same time well shrunk.
This ensures the essential quality of good homespun that the
lines of the warp and woof shall not be distinguishable on the
surface. The rugs and blankets and the coarse stuffs with
goat's hair are washed and shrunk in a drdshteald. This is
a large, open, wooden tub built in the ground, and narrowing
towards the bottom. From a long wooden shoot above a
strong stream of water pours down into it. In this the rugs
are placed and are whirled round and round in the seething
torrent of water.

This is a brief account of the manufacture in which the
women of Samarina spend most of their time, and the profits
of this go a long way towards supporting the families. The
two qualities which in addition to beauty, modesty and good
temper, are most highly prized in a girl are her ability to work
wool and to cook. Every year the heads of families invest
nearly all their floating capital in the purchase of raw wool.
Consequently throughout the summer in every family there
is a shortness of actual cash, and the marketing of the village
in the summer is one vast credit system. All the tradesmen
keep big ledgers and daybooks, and so also do the cafes and
food shops. Children instead of begging a halfpenny from
their mothers to buy sweets will beg a small handful of wool.
This is exchanged by the sweet shop man for peppermints or
the like, and the wool he collects in a large box under his
counter and in due course hands over to his womenkind to
work. Thus Samarina to a great extent lives by wool and
thinks in wool, far more so than any other Vlach village we
have visited. Any untoward event in the woollen trade of
Upper Macedonia or Albania would spell disaster for Samarina.
The woollen fabrics when made are sold at certain well
recognised fairs. The first is the fair of St Akhillios at
Ghrevena which we have already mentioned. The next is
a fair at Monastir to which the merchants of Samarina send

84 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

every year about a hundred mule loads of coarse fabrics.
The caravan conveying these leaves Samarina about ten days
after the festival of the Assumption on August 15th O.S. The
next fair takes place at Seriije and begins on the i6th of
September O.S. and lasts for four days. Returned from that,
all Samarina prepares to go to the great fair of Konitsa which
begins on September 22nd O.S. and lasts for eight days.
This is the principal fair for the Samarina wool trade ; for
this the better rugs and stuffs are reserved. To this fair
merchants come from all parts of Albania, equally from
Sr;utari and from Yannina. With the money obtained by
the sale of their products at the fair of Konitsa every Samarina
family pays the debts it has been running up during the sum-
mer. Any failure in the success of this fair would wreck the
credit system and plunge many into desperate financial diffi-
culties. This fair may be said to end the summer season at
Samarina for soon after most of the families desert the village
and by the time the day of St Demetrius dawns only those
who have made up their minds to winter in the village remain.
Two other fairs concern to some extent also the people of
Samarina. One is held at Tirnavos a few days after Easter
and is principally a mule fair. The other takes place at
Trikkala towards the end of September, and is mainly con-
cerned with sheep dealing. But both these fairs have lost
their irnportanr;e for the Vlachs of Northern Pindus, since the
cession of Thessaly to <'/rcccc, fr^r the Greek customs duties
were very heavy and a sf;rious bar to trarle.

Ecclesiastically Samarina forms part of the dioriesc of
Ghrevena and the bishop naturally has supreme control over
the churrihes of the village and was in the eyes of the Turkish
government the head of its Greek community. Each of the
four churches is under the management of its own wardens
and priests. They provide for th^; upkeep and repair of the
churr.h and from its funrls m,-i.y gr.uit money for any public
works in the parish, 'jhe funds are mninly derived from the
offerings made fui Sunday and especially Iroui lh(;se given
at the fe:,l.iva,l <)\ Lhe r hun h. The only < liin( h that possesses
any endowment is St Mary the (/rcat whi( h owns most of the

PLATE A.

iF'^ML'^

t 1

CHURCHES 85

booths and shops round La Hani. Each church has two or
more priests attached to it. They are paid by their flock and
their womenkind work wool. On the first day of every month
they go round and bless each house in the parish and the house-
holder in return makes a small offering. They also receive fees
for baptisms, weddings and burials, and for reading over sick
persons. The largest and most important parish is that of St
Mary the Great which includes some two hundred and fifty
houses. The interior although like all orthodox Greek churches
may be described here, as it is a good example of the churches
not only in Samarina, but in the other Vlach villages to the
south. From the outside (Plate XIV i) it has the appearance of
a tall and broad barn, and in this it resembles the majority of
the churches in Northern Greece. On the south side and on
the west is a low cloister {hdiaie), a constant feature of these
churches which always have one at the west end and another
either on the south or north. At the east end of the southern
cloister is a chapel, another constant feature in Samarina at
least, in this case dedicated to St Peter and St Paul. The
entrance in use is on the south side towards the west end, but
there is another entrance in the middle of the west end, which
as usual in such churches is rarely used. If we enter from this
western door we find ourselves at once in the narthex, above
which is the women's gallery built of wood. The narthex is
separated from the nave by a solid wall pierced by a narrow door
in its centre, from which is taken the view of the interior seen
in Plate XIV 2 looking eastwards. On the left of this door
as we enter the nave is a table on which is a dish for offerings
of money. Here one of the wardens stands with bundles of
candles and tapers for the congregation to buy and set up
before the ikons. There is one man in the village who is a
candle maker and he supplies all its churches. The nave itself
is separated from the aisles by rows of built columns, along
which on either side of the nave are the stalls where the more
important members of the congregation stand. In the middle
of the stalls on the right is the bishop's throne of carved wood
and gilt. At the west end of the stalls on the other side is a
pulpit of similar workmanship. Towards the east end of the

86 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

stalls on both sides are the two reading desks where the chanters
take their stand. The walls are painted with fresco representa-
tions of the saints and biblical subjects. The painting of ikons
and the decorating of churches with frescoes is another Samarina
trade, and at the present time there are said to be about twelve
natives of the village who follow it. Naturally this craft
cannot be practised in the village alone and therefore such
artists travel about all over Northern Greece, Epirus and
Macedonia in search of work. The churches of Samarina all
seem to have been decorated by local artists, a fact which in
many cases is borne out by the inscriptions in them. The ceiling
is flat and of wood decorated with small ornamental panels
and painted. Amongst Vlach villages the people of Metsovo
are said to have been particularly renowned for making such
ceilings in days gone by, but there is no reason to believe that
it is a Vlach speciality. The nave is separated from the chancel
by a tall screen of wood, most elaborately carved and gilt.
In this are inserted the principal ikons and before them hang
votive offerings of silver, beads, coins, cheap jewellery and
the like. Above in the screen is a row of niches filled with
ikons representing the important festivals of the church in order
from left to right. The one that is appropriate to the festival
of the day is taken out and placed on a stand in the body of the
church and by it is put a metal stand for the tapers of the
worshippers. Two similar taper stands are placed in the nave
one on either side of the central door of the screen and in front
of the two principal ikons. From the centre of the top of the
screen rises a great gilt wooden cross flanked by two dragons.
Often too from the overhanging cornice of the screen project
wooden doves from which are suspended the small oil lamps
that are lighted before the ikons. Within the screen the
arrangement of the chancel with the prothesis on one side and
the dhiakonikon on the other is the same as in all orthodox
churches. It is to be noted that there is only one apse behind
the altar, on the roof of which grows the pine tree the great
wonder of Samarina. The whole roof of the church consists of
rough planks covered over with overlapping stone slabs, and
it is in such soil that this marvellous pine is rooted.

PLATE XIV

I. EXTERIOR FROM THE EAST

2. INTERIOR FROM THE WEST

SAMARINA: GREAT ST. MARYS

CHURCHES 87

As to the date of the church that cannot be ascertained,
although there is an inscription which states that the wall
paintings were executed in 1829. This translated reads as
follows : —

-\- Beautified was this holy and venerable temple of our very
blessed and glorious Lady, Mary the Mother of God, in the high-
priesthood of the all holy and reverend Metropolitan the Lord
Anthimos and when there served in this church ]\likhail the
priest and arch-priest and Khristos, Zisi, Steryios, Yeoryios
and Khristos the priests, and in the wardenship of Yerasios
Triandaphilos and at the expense and under the care of the
same and with the contribution of Adham Tshutra and other
christians in this village as a memorial for ever, and by the
hand of Khristos the priest and Andonios his brother the sons
of the priest loannis out of the same village in the year of
salvation 1829 in the month of July the thirtieth day.

One of the ikons dates from 181 1 and others from 1830, 1831,
1832 and 1834. From this we may conclude that it was about
that time that the church took its present form, but it probably
was in existence before then. If the local tradition is right in
asserting that this is the oldest in the village, a church must have
stood on this site for some two or three hundred years. Outside
the church and standing separate from it near the south-west
corner is the campanile. This is later than the church, at least
all agree in saying so, but its exact date is not kno\\Ti.

Next in importance to Great St Mary's is the church of
St Elijah. The parish includes some hundred and eighty
houses, but is cut in two by the deep ravine already mentioned
which has wrought such havoc among its houses. The plan
and arrangement of this church are similar to that of Great St
Mary's. The chapel attached to it in the cloister on the north
side is dedicated to the Ayii Anaryiri, that is to say to St
Cosmas and St Damian. An inscription states that the wall
paintings were done in 1828, and this translated reads : —

~|~ Beautified was this holy and venerable temple of the holy
and glorious Prophet Elijah, the messenger of God, in the high-
priesthood of the all holy Metropolitan the Lord Anthimos, and
in the priesthood of the most reverend Mikliail the priest and

88 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

archdeacon and Yerasios the priest and Khristos the priest, in
the wardenship of Adham Hondre also called Samaras, and by
the hand of Khristos the priest the son of the priest loannis
out of the same village, in the year of salvation 1828 February
the twentieth. The end.

One of the ikons dates from 1786 and in a klephtic ballad
relating to Totskas the church is referred to as being well
known at the time between 1770 and 1800, and the present
priest has assured us that it is at least two hundred years
old.

The third largest parish is that belonging to the church of
Little St Mary's, which stands in a group of tall poplars on a
rise at the northern end of the village. This numbers about a
hundred houses. The church is of the same general type as
the others, and has cloisters with a chapel dedicated to the
Ayii Anaryiri, and a school which is used by the Greek party
since that of Great St Mary's is not large enough. Round
the church on the west and south is a pade enclosed by a stone
wall topped with wood which serves as a seat, and over the
gateway entering this is a short campanile. The south door
of the church is built of stone on which are carved many
strange devices, men holding flowers, St George and the dragon,
lizards, lions, cherubim, and birds pecking at flowers. Over
the door to the right is this inscription : —

Holy Virgin, Mother of God, help thy servants dwelling
in this village, in the high-priesthood of Ghavril the all holy
and divinely protected exarch of our most holy Metropolis
Ghrevena, at the expense of Steryioyiani, in the year 1799
May the 28th : the master mason Zisi.

and directly above the door is the following : —

This temple of the Holy Virgin of the city of Samarina
was conspicuous of old, but was again built beautiful to the
world to the glory of the God of all mankind when there served
as high-priest in our province the renowned Yennadhios the
follower of wisdom, and under the care of and with great
zeal by Zisi Exarkhu of the house of Hadzhimikha. Approach
ye old men, young men come up, women run, hither Oh
maidens, and worship the God of Heaven in fear of soul and

CHURCHES 89

heart, in the year 1865 August the 2nd : the master mason
Yiani.

Also outside in the wall of the apse is a stone dated 1855.
From the evidence it appears that a church was built on this
site in 1799 and afterwards enlarged to its present form between
1855 and 1865. This agrees well with the local tradition, but
we cannot discover whether there was any church here before
1799.

The last and smallest parish is that of St Athanasius which
includes about seventy houses only. The church is of the
usual type, and has a side chapel in the cloister dedicated to
the Ayii Anaryiri. Now it has no school, for this collapsed
in the winter a few years ago, but for some time it was used
by the Roumanian party. Over the door of the church which
is in the north side is the date 1778, and three ikons within are
dated 1793, 1793 and 1855. We may thus conclude that the
church in its present form was, like the others, built towards
the end of the eighteenth century. In its construction the
only peculiarity is that the columns in the nave are of pine
trunks and not built columns of stone.

This completes the list of the churches of the village proper,
but there is the shrine reputed to be dedicated to Ayios Kosmas
which deserves mention. This lies in a little hollow on
the hill side above Gudrumitsa where the martyr is reported
to have preached to the village, and in memory of his visit the
shrine was erected on the spot where he had stood. In a
later chapter will be found further details of this remarkable
man, who seems to have visited Samarina in 1778, for on a
rock a little below Mermishaklu is this inscription : —

1778 AnO TOPI ATIO

1861 Kozm

and below

Tb^OOMAPAOS TE

A02GE2 TEAT02 — PHIVE

The latter part is unintelligible, but the first two lines, although
they do not seem to have been inscribed till 1861, apparently
shew that he visited Samarina in 1778, the year before his death.

go THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

The monastery of Samarina which is dedicated to Ayia
Paraskevi (in Vlach Sanda Vineri), St Friday, lies about half
an hour south of the village on the road to Briaza and not far
above the river of Samarina. The buildings are well sheltered
from the north and in winter are not snowed up. The site
faces south and is well favoured by nature (Plate XVI), for
all around the hill side is thick with pines and beeches, and in
summer the bare patches are green with waving bracken and
spangled with wild flowers. Below the monastery towards
the river are a few meadows where hay is made and near these
and also on the slopes of Ghumara opposite are some fields
where barley, rye and maize are grown. In front is a garden
full of vegetables and dotted with fruit trees, plums, cherries
and apples. Before the door is a paved court enclosed by a
low stone wall, where there is a stable and some sheds, as well
as a spring of clear cold water and a fine walnut tree. Access
to the monastery proper is given by a low, narrow gate in the
west side closed with a heavy wooden door studded with iron.
High above this outside is a projecting stone niche containing
an ikon of Ayia Paraskevi, and directly above the door is a
look-out place with a hole in the floor so that the monks could
survey visitors and, if they proved undesirable, give them a
warm reception. By the side of the niche a wooden balcony
has recently been built so that the oil lamp hanging before
the ikon of the saint can be hghted easily. Within the plan
is similar to that of m.ost Levantine monasteries, that is to say
the buildings are arranged round a court. In this case the
court is oblong, with the longer sides on the north and south.
The lower range of buildings on the north has an open cloister
against the court on the ground level, and the first and second
floors have similar cloisters now partly closed in with wood-
work. On the ground floor are the stables and store-rooms ;
on the first floor are the kitchens and rooms for servants ; and
on the second floor is a row of cells, built of wood, for monks ;
and on the west the guest-chambers. The principal guest-
room is very similar to the principal living-room in a Samarina
house, and the walls are decorated with picture postcards and
photographs. The stairs leading to the upper stories are

CHURCHES 91

at the north-west corner just inside the door, and it is said
that somewhere among the labyrinth of dark chambers on the
second jEloor is a so-called prison where Leonidha of Samarina
lay concealed from the Turks. All the windows look into the
court, a sure sign that the building was constructed to stand
a siege if necessary. Only the recently built guest-chamber,
which is high up at the south-west corner, has windows that
look outwards. In this case owing to the slope of the ground
they are so high above the earth that no danger from the out-
side can affect them. The church of the monastery is built
into the south wall on the ground level, but has high sub-
structures below owing to the slope of the hill. In these
below the exo-narthex, which is open, is a large cellar-like
room from which a secret passage is said to lead down to the
river. By this Leonidha and Dhuka are believed to have
escaped. At all events it can only be entered from above by
a trapdoor and might easily not be noticed. The church,
which of course has no other stories above it, is small and
domed, unlike the churches in the village which have gable
roofs with wooden rafters. The dome is supported on four
central piers of which the two nearest the chancel are columnar.
There is a small narthex and the chancel is separated from the
nave by the usual gilt screen of carved wood-work, and the
walls are decorated with pictures of saints and biblical subjects
in fresco. At the back of the chancel is a single apse and in the
wall above is the following inscription which gives the date
of its building : —

This temple of the holy, glorious and blessed virgin martyr of
Christ Paraskevi was built in the year 1713 from the Incarnation.

How old the monastery really is it is impossible to say.
The people of Samarina assert that it is eight hundred years
old and quote in support of this statement a stone carved
with a date high up in the outside of the west wall. The date
they read as 1066, but on careful examination with field
glasses it appears to us to read 1866. In any case the cutting
is fresh and does not seem to be anything like as old as 1066.
The stone too does not seem to be in its original position and
was perhaps transferred from elsewhere and recut. In other

92 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

days the monastery was wealthy and had many monks. It
owns much land and many vineyards at Armata and once
held a chiftlik at Skutina near Kalabaka, near which is a place
called Paleo-Samarina because several families from the village
used to winter there. The chiftlik was sold by three or four
prominent men of Samarina in whose names it was then
registered and they divided the money among themselves.
According to the common belief of the village neither those
men nor their descendants have prospered since because of
this sacrilege. Now the young men of Samarina who have
emigrated to America have formed in the cities whither most
of them go to work, a society which they call the 'FXKyiviKrj
'AhX<poT'/]C '2tCi[jjCcf)ii'ciiiov, ri ' Ayict UapaCKZw^. Its main object
is to collect funds to buy back the lost chiftlik for the monastery,
for it is believed that the surplus funds of the monastery will
be available to be devoted to public works in the village.
For some time towards the end of the nineteenth century the
monastery was deserted, but recently the villagers determined
that it should be revived and looked about for a suitable
man to make abbot. They found a native of Samarina who
was a monk at the famous monastery of Zaburdo, and had
some sheep and goats. They thought that with this capital
and the pastures round the monastery he would be able to
restore it to prosperity. Their expectations have been realised,
for the sheep and goats have multiplied and the monastery
does a good trade in kash kaval. The abbot is energetic in
overseeing the lands at Armata, has cultivated the garden and
fields near, and has rebuilt much of the upper story on the
inside with wood. The new guest-chambers are his work,
and he has recently planted a vineyard. The monastery
now employs an old woman as cook, several men as shepherds
and labourers, and two or three boys, all of them Vlachs of
Samarina. There are two monks, natives too, but they are
not always in residence, and in 191 1 a Greek priest was im-
ported for the services of the church, for the abbot is a man
of business and not of learning.

In the fields near the monastery stands yet another church
called St Saviour's (Ayios Sotir) which forms part of the

CHURCHES 93

monastery. This is larger than the church of the monastery
itself and in plan resembles those in the village, although it
has no cloisters. It is roofed by a series of small domes and
yet has the divisions between the nave and the aisles formed
by arcades. The walls are covered with frescoes and the
inscription accompanying them says they were finished in
1819. Its text translated runs thus : —

""j~ Beautified was this holy and venerable temple of the
holy, glorious and blessed virgin martyr and champion of Christ
Paraskevi in the high-priesthood of the all holy and divinely
protected Metropolitan the holy bishop of Ghrevena the Lord
Vartholomeos, by the care and contribution of the holy fathers
present in this holy monastery, by the hand of the poor readers
Dhimitrios and ]\Iikhail the sons of the priest loannis out of
the same village Samarina, in the year of salvation 1819 in
the month of October the fifteenth day it was finished, glory
to God the Holy.

Thus we see that though the church is now called Ayios
Sotir it was originally dedicated, like the monastery itself,
to Ayia Paraskevi and in consequence it has changed its
festival from the day of that saint to the feast of the Transfigura-
tion. It is quite possible that the fact that both churches
had the same festival caused the name of this second church
to be changed, so that its feast should fall on a different day.
This involves two collections of offerings instead of one. The
building of this and the churches in the village itself falls at the
end of the eighteenth century after the treaty of Kainarji in
1774 between Russia and Turkey by which the christians in
Turkey were not to be prevented from building or repairing
churches. We may however also conclude that this was the
most flourishing period of Samarina, when there was most
money available for building churches, not only in the village,
but also at the monastery. A parallel instance is to be seen in
the case of MuskopoFe, mentioned in a later chapter.

The only other churches on Samarina territory are those at
the abandoned chiftlik of H'ilimodhi where there are two. One
is dedicated to St Athanasius and the other to St Saviour,
but both are small and not in good condition. Round them

94 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

are the ruins of houses and a few small huts and barns used
by those who go to cut hay there.

The houses like the churches are all built by Greek masons,
and so are only Vlach in a secondary sense. As in many other
Vlach villages nearly every house at Samarina has its own
patch of garden, divided off by a rough stone wall or a rude
wooden fence (Plate XV 2). Here are grown French beans,
broad beans, cabbages, lettuces, sorrel, cucumbers, marrows,
tomatoes, parsley, mint, potatoes and Jerusalem artichokes, in
fact any vegetable that can be grown in the summer. Besides
vegetables most gardens will boast a cherry or plum tree, and
perhaps also an apple or pear. Here and there too one may
see roses, marigolds and stocks, but like nearly all Balkan
christians the Vlachs care little for flowers. The houses are
built of stones and nearly all stand two stories high ; in size
they vary from large imposing buildings capable of holding
four or more families to modest dwellings meant for one family
only (Plates XV 2, XVI i, XVH). The smaller houses are
often semi-detached and are frequently grouped round a
small paved yard. Excepting round the doors and windows
and in the angles where squared blocks are sometimes employed,
the stones used are left rough and since lime cannot be procured
on the spot, mortar is expensive and is used sparingly. The
stones in consequence are usually laid in mud, but pointed on
the outside with mortar and plastered inside and then white-
washed. Battens of juniper, a wood that does not easily
perish, are laid lengthways in the walls at fairly frequent
intervals to act as binding courses. The roofs are all of a low
gable type, for a flat roof of course would not stand the winter
snows, and are made either of stone slabs, or of rough hewn
planks. The only attempt at external decoration consists of
grotesque figures and rude patterns which are occasionally
carved on one or two of the larger stones built into the walls.
A stone inscribed with the date and the builder's name is also
sometimes seen.

In many respects the type of house built has gradually
been changing during recent years and house architecture in
Samarina is at present in an interesting transitional stage. The

1. SAMAKINA: IHK MONASTERY FROM THE SOUTH

■2. SAMARIXA; (IROUP OF HOUSES SHOWIN't; 0\K\, i^AKUFNS AM)

K IPENGT

HOUSES 95

older houses in the village have few and only small windows on
the ground floor, and all the living-rooms are in the upper story.
In the newer houses the need for defence has been less press-
ing so that windows on the ground floor are larger and more
frequent. The living-room is still upstairs, but the downstair
rooms are beginning to be used. Contemporary with this
development there has been a great increase in small comforts
and European ideas. Window glass has come into use, but is
still far from universal. Generally speaking it is only found
in the newest houses and in those inhabited all the year round.
Boarded floors are supplanting the old mud floors, chairs at
Samarina have come into vogue with a rush and most houses
now possess one or two. Wall decorations such as picture
postcards and the like are also a sign of the times. It seems
therefore worth while to describe a house and its contents in
some detail, and as typical we may select a house of moderate
size, of respectable antiquity and one belonging to a family
that is tolerably well off.

The house will be entered by a low, but wide door on the
ground floor. This opens directly into a long, low room paved
with rough slabs. If the owner be a muleteer this will at times
be used as a stable, and along one side there will be a manger.
If not, the manger or a place for one may be there all the same,
but the room in summer at least will be the work-room and
contain the loom, spinning-wheel, skein-winder, and stool and
comb for carding, all of which would otherwise be upstairs.
For the greater part of the day we shall find the housewife
in the work-room at her spinning-wheel, an elder daughter will
be at the loom, and a younger perhaps carding wool, all pro-
bably will be near the open door for the windows if any are
small. Outside in the paved courtyard spread on a rug in the
sun to dry will be the wool that has recently been picked over
and washed. On high days and holidays the loom will be
covered over with a rug and the other implements for weaving
put out of sight. The rest of the ground floor is taken up by a
store-room, in which are kept wooden chests full of spare
rugs and clothes, homespun not yet made up, tins of butter or
lard, and other household properties. There will also be a

96 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

bin for flour and a few skins of cheese will probably be
hanging from the roof. From the work-room a short straight
staircase with a simple hand rail leads directly to the principal
room of the house. The top of the stairway is usually fenced
in with lattice-work, above which is a cupboard where the rugs
used for bedding are put away.

Either across one end of the room or round two or three of
the walls there will be a low wooden dais or minddrlik'i.
Woollen rugs woven by the mistress of the house are strewn
over it, and a few cushions are placed in the corners by the wall.
In the day-time it is the place to sit upon, and at night it
becomes a bed. The newer the house the narrower the min-
ddrlik'i, and in some of the newest houses where chairs are
intended to be used it has almost become a bench round the
wall. Again, where the minddrlik'i is large, the remaining
part of the floor, whether of boards or beaten earth — earthen
floors are to be found even in upstairs rooms — is often left un-
covered as it is not used to sit upon ; but where the minddrlik'i
is comparatively small the rest of the floor is usually covered
with a piece of carpet or rug. On entering a house the shoes
are usually removed as the floor is still the place on which to
sit, but with the increase of chairs and boots, both European
innovations, this custom is dying out.

Partly built into the wall on the side of the room where
there is no minddrlik'i will be the misandrd, a very typical
piece of furniture which may be described as a cross between a
wardrobe and sideboard. The centre part of it, which is set
back, consists of a large double-doored cupboard where rugs
and pillows can be stored. Immediately to either side are a few
small shelves, and beyond these large cupboards for more rugs
or clothes. Elsewhere in the room there will probably be one
or two small shelved cupboards built into the walls. Directly
opposite the misandrd and so on the dais or minddrlik'i and
right up against the wall is the fireplace or vatrd, a square of
flat slabs plastered over with mud. Above it is a wide chimney
that partly projects into the room and is ornamented b}^ a
special hanging of carpet. The chimney above the roof ends
in a short, square, stone shaft covered with a large slab, but

HOUSES 97

with slits at the side for the smoke. The places of honour in
the house alike by day and night are in the corners to right and
left of the hearth.

In all the better houses there is a flat, wooden ceiling below
the roof beams, and in the centre of it in many cases a simple
carved pattern. Round each wall at about a foot or two below
the ceiling is a plank shelf, which holds glasses, bottles and
various small objects. Here too always on the east side stands
the family ikon before which a wick floating in olive oil is
always kept burning. A small table completes the furniture,
but tables like chairs are of course recent introductions. The
most striking innovations of modern times are probably
pictures, photographs and ornaments of various kinds, the
result largely of emigration. These are nailed on the walls or
placed on available shelves. Favourite pictures, excluding
picture postcards, include a series of oleographs of the Gene-
vieve legend that emanate from Athens ; highly coloured
prints of the crowned heads of Europe, famous Macedonian
bandits and other celebrities, and portraits of the Greek or
Roumanian Royal Families give some indication of political
feeling. Amid this galaxy of modern art, which is thought of
exceeding beauty, one occasionally finds a quaint wood block
or painting of Jerusalem and the Holy Places made some
hundred years ago ; and once the treasured possession of some
pilgrim, whose name perhaps appears in the corner.

In most of the houses perhaps a few books may be found,
but these nearly all belong to the younger members of the
family.

All but the smallest houses possess at least a second room on
the upper floor, which is normally used as a kitchen and as a
bedroom for the women, and in no case is as fully furnished as
the others. In one of the upper rooms there is usually a
niruh'ite or small sink built into the wall, at which the family
wash. A small outer door in the upper story is usual especi-
ally in the older houses ; and since the houses are often built on
the side of a hill, this door sometimes opens on or near to the
ground level, but if not it has a short sloping ladder on the
outside. Many of the older houses have also a wooden balcony
7

98 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

partly closed in by a carved wooden grill which forms one
whole side of a room ; others have a small projection over the
main entrance (Plate XV 2). This somewhat resembles a bow
window ; it is closed in with planking and has a row of small
square windows with sHding wooden shutters, and around the
inside a low wooden seat. Both forms are known as k'ipeng'i.
More modern houses have small wooden balconies with an
iron rail.

Outside the house there will be a shed used as a kitchen, if
there is little room available within, and somewhere near at
hand there will be an oven which is usually shared by several
families. The ovens are dome-shaped and of a very common
type (Plate XV 2). The base is built of stones and the upper
part of clay strengthened with potsherds ; the floor is made of
flat slabs and the door which is square and low is closed with a
slab or piece of tin or iron. When the oven is first made the
dome of clay is soft and is only kept in position by a framework
of wood. Consequently it has to be hardened. Two or three
ventilation holes are made in the top of the dome and a fire
is lit inside. This consumes the wooden framework, but at the
same time bakes the clay hard, and the oven is then ready for
use. To bake bread a fire is lit inside the oven and allowed to
burn through ; the flat loaves of bread are then baked in the
ashes.

The Vlachs as a whole take great pride in their homes, and
the houses in Samarina and in m.ost of the Pindus villages
are clean and well kept. Leake and other travellers have
noted the neat appearance that Vlach cottages often bear in
contrast with those of their neighbours, and Sir Charles Eliot
to illustrate the same feature records how he once saw a Vlach
use glass to mend a broken window, instead of the usual
scrap of newspaper. But though the interiors of the houses
are usually neat and clean, the villages are often untidy. A
Vlach villager has a rooted prejudice against making repairs,
and when repairs become necessary will often prefer to build
a new house altogether. Abandoned and ruined houses are
therefore not uncommon, and a single family may possess
more than one in the same village.

HOUSES

99

The people of Samarina have a lasting feeling for the hills
round their native village, a strong pride in their homes for
the time being, but no scruples about abandoning one house
for another. They employ Greek workmen to build for them,
but their own folk as carpenters. The words they use for the
different parts of their houses are Greek or Turkish. Thus
the ground floor is called hamhla, the store-room kdtoyie, and
the window pdldthiri, all Greek words. The upper room is
called nudd, the chimney huhare, and the cupboards duldk'i, all
Turkish. Niruh'ite is Greek and minddrlik'i is Turkish. But
these all denote the various parts of a house as opposed to a
hut ; for the words used for the simplest essentials of a home,
kasd hut or house, poartd door, and vatrd hearth, are all Vlach.
This indicates that there was a time when permanent houses
were unknown and a nomadic life prevailed.

CHAPTER VI

BIRTH, BAPTISM, BETROTHAL, MARRIAGE AND
BURIAL CUSTOMS

Omlu ari zh bana sh moarti.

Man has both Hfe and death.

Vlach Proverb

IN the Southern Balkans where the different races Hve
side by side in the same towns and villages it is very
difficult to decide how far any custom is peculiar to
any one of them. The Vlachs are no exception to this rule
and owing to their small number and their dispersion amongst
other races, they have borrowed and adapted from their
neighbours to a great extent. This is especially true of all
customs in which the church is concerned such as baptism,
marriage and burial where the Greek influence is predominant.
Of the songs sung at betrothals and weddings the great
majority are in Greek, but what was their original language,
is a different question. The account here given of some of
their more important customs is based on our own observa-
tion at Samarina and completed with the aid of information,
which was taken down on the spot and verified wherever
possible. There is no means of determining whether any
particular custom is old or recent, though we have men-
tioned any changes in this respect which came under our
notice. Consequently this is to be taken as a record of what
was the usual custom at Samarina when we were there. To
aim at completeness would be impossible, for it would take a
lifetime or longer to reach it. Those who have attempted to
collect folk-lore in the Balkans will know how much time and
patience are required to get information especially from the
women.

BIRTH CUSTOMS loi

Birth

It is said that when a woman is with child she is not al-
lowed to go out at night, for it is supposed to be dangerous
for her. When her labour begins, a boy is sent to fetch the
old woman, who acts as midwife and is the only person who
assists at the child's birth. After birth the child is wrapped
up in swaddling clothes and placed in a cradle or in a corner.
Then the members of the family come to see the baby, for up
till then they are not allowed to be in the house. The small
boys of the family run about to tell the news to the relations
of the mother to receive sihdrik'e, that is to get a small gift, a
few halfpence or some sweets. The mother lies down in bed
covered with a thick rug and her relations bring gifts called
hdghdnitsle, batter cakes, pilaf, a bottle of wine and a kulakii.
A kulaku is a flat round loaf of bread baked in a tin and bought
from a baker. It is made of wheaten ilour mixed with pease,
and is decorated on top with patterns in sesame. The boy
who carries these gifts — it is considered undignified for a
grown-up person to carry anything — is rewarded with one or
two piastres. Three days after birth they make preparations
for the visit of the fates, who come, so they say, at midnight.
The child is carefully dressed and one or two gold pieces or
some other kind of ornament is hung round its neck. It is
believed that if the child is thus decorated the fates will " write
a good fortune for it." If not, the fortune given will be bad,
and when anyone is unlucky one often hears the phrase " so
was it written for him." The mother is not allowed to go out
of the house, even to go to church for forty days from the
time of the birth. When the forty days are completed she is
churched by the priest, a ceremony which takes place in the
house. Then the mother sets to work and washes the whole
house, and all the rugs, clothes and other properties in it.
She whitewashes it, repairs and rolls the floors of beaten earth
and rcpoints with clay the stone-work round the door. When
all this is finished and the house is literally and metaphorically
clean again, she can go out, go to church and pay calls.

The child may not be taken out of the house till it has been

102 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

christened. Wlien children are quite young it may happen
that they fall ill. If they are unbaptized, it will be said that
they are ill ; but if they have already been christened it will
be said that they have been bewitched with the evil eye.
Curiously enough the evil eye can only affect those who have
been baptized. One often sees women and girls with a blot of
indigo in the middle of their foreheads, which is a charm against
the evil eye. On the other hand the short Hues or circlets that
are painted in indigo or pitch on the neck, wrists or forearms
are charms against diphtheria and other dangerous diseases.

Baptism

Generally christening takes place about eight days after
birth, but may be put off for a week or two. Exceptional
cases occur in which baptism is delayed for as much as a year,
and then the custom which forbids the child to be taken out
before its christening is not observed. The child has only one
godfather who should be the same person who acted as best
man at the parents' wedding. In Vlach the term nunu is
used for both duties. Often it is not possible for the same
man to act on both occasions, and then another godfather
has to be chosen. When the parents have decided that the
child is to be baptized, they send a boy with a kulaku to the
godfather to tell him that his presence is required. The god-
father provides the child with christening clothes, arms him-
self with two or three wax tapers, a kerchief, a metal jug with
warm water and another with cold and goes to meet the
priests at the church. The child is brought there by the
midwife and then baptized according to the rites of the Ortho-
dox Eastern Church. Baptism takes place by immersion and
immediately after the child is confirmed and so made a full
member of the church. When the priest baptizes the child
the name is given him by the godfather who names the child
as he pleases. Small boys belonging to the family crowd
round and as soon as they hear the name given by the god-
father run off to the parents' house and to relations to tell
the name and receive sihdrik'e. The first to bring the news is

BETROTHAL CUSTOMS 103

given a piastre, and the others halfpennies or sweets. After
the ceremony in the church the company returns to the parents'
house, the godfather carrying the child in his arms and holding
in his hands two lighted tapers. As soon as they enter the
house the mother takes a gold or silver ornament and a piece
of bread and kneels before the godfather and kisses his hand,
after which she takes the baby and puts it in the cradle.
Then the godfather goes up to the child, kisses it and makes
some gift, a gold piece, a dollar or whatever he likes. After
that they all sit down, eat drink and make merry. W'Tien
they begin to sing the following song is that considered most
appropriate : —

Get up Demetrius and change your clothes and put on your golden
dress and let us go to the Aghrapha, high up to Karpenisi that you
may christen the child and give him his name. He has eyes like the
priest and eyebrows like the bishop.

Betrothal

In Samarina there is no fixed age for betrothal which
generally occurs about one year before marriage, but the girl
is usually about twenty and the man between twenty-five
and thirty or even older. In a large family the girls, unless
some of them are much younger than their elder brothers,
marry first and the elder sisters and brothers always take
precedence of the younger. This is the reason why the bride
is always younger than the bridegroom. In every case it is
looked upon as a natural thing that one should marry. Owing
to the fact that more boys are born than girls, old maids are
unknown ; but old bachelors are despised. The social life
of the Vlachs in which both sexes meet on almost equal terms
and the fact that a Vlach girl has no dowry means that theo-
retically in both betrothal and marriage there is a certain
freedom of choice on both sides. How much this is so in
practice it is not possible for a stranger to say. Among the
Greeks no girl can hope for marriage unless her parents can
give a dowry large enough to attract some suitable young man,
and the bridegroom's principal aim in choosing a bride is to

104 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

obtain as much money as possible. This leads, as in all
countries where the dowry system is the rule, to much wrang-
ling. The dowry is paid in cash and is the absolute property
of the husband, and is only repayable in the event of divorce
or of the bride's death soon after marriage. The Vlachs all
condemn this system alleging that it prevents free choice,
but many of them will marry Greek girls for the sake of the
dowry. But the position of women among the Vlachs is
better than in Greek villages where a girl has no choice at all.
Among the Vlachs no young man can hope to obtain a bride
till he is in a position to support a wife. He on his part will
look for a bride who works wool well and is a good cook. Her
abilities as a housewife are important for she brings him nothing
else except her trousseau, some rugs, and a few household
properties. No wedding presents are ever given.

When a young man reaches a suitable age and thinks he
can afford it, he takes the first step and applies for the hand
of some girl on whom he has set his affections. He selects
two older men, who should be married, of about forty or fifty
years of age and generally respected in the village, as his
ambassadors [pruksinitsi) . They approach the parents and
ask them if they are willing to give their daughter to the
young man in question. The answer may be given the same
day, but more often two or three days pass while the family
consider the proposal. All the important members of the
family are consulted and they enquire about the young man
to see if he has a good character and is hard working and
healthy. Often two or more young men will propose for the
same girl at the same time. Then even more deliberation is
required and it is necessary, perhaps, to find out if the girl
has any preference. If she has, it is expressed in the most
modest way through her parents. If the parents are not willing
to give their daughter in marriage to a candidate, the saying
goes that he has been beaten ; and the same phrase is applied
to the unsuccessful ambassadors as well. When a favourable
answer is given the ambassadors return to the would-be
bridegroom and bid his family prepare for the formal betrothal
and exchange of rings. This will take place on a festival

BETROTHAL CUSTOMS 105

or on a Sunday. A betrothal may take place at any time in
the summer, but since all Samarina, if it can, comes up to
the village for the festival of the Assumption, this is the time
for the young men to propose for brides. The holidays which
follow this festival are the days preferred for celebrating a
betrothal, which takes place as soon as possible and always in
the evening after work is done for the day.

On the appointed evening a party of friends and relations

meets at the bridegroom's house, where they are joined by a

priest. Then without the bridegroom they proceed in silence

to the house of the bride. On their arrival they find the

friends and relations of the bride's family collected together.

The bride however does not appear, for she is hidden away in

the back part of the house with some of her bosom friends.

As they enter they say " Bund seard " or " Kcck}^ 'ffTripcc," " Good

evening," the language used indicating the political party to

which they belong, Roumanian or Greek. No reference to

the betrothal is made, but after they sit down and talk a little

and are served with the usual refreshments, one of the older

members of the bride's family addresses them. " We see that

you have come with a large party some with sticks, some with

rifles, but we do not know what your object is." Then one of

the elders of the bridegroom's party or one of the ambassadors

answers, " We have heard that you have a girl, good, beautiful

and hard working, who is called So-and-so ; we also have a

young man, good and hard working, if you are willing let us

betroth your girl to the young man." "If it is for such

business that you have come, then welcome. We are willing,

and we betroth the girl." Then a table is brought in. A

Vlach table is of the ordinary type used in peasant houses in

the Balkan peninsula and in Anatolia. It is low not more than

eight inches high, and circular being about three feet in diameter,

and can easily be carried by one person even when loaded with

dishes. On the table is the best table-cloth and three soup

plates, two full of sweets and the third empty. In the empty

plate the bridegroom's party place the betrothal gifts. These

consist of one or more gold coins sometimes made into necklaces,

a gold ring tied on to a piece of red or blue ribbon, and a silk

io6 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

head-kerchief. The betrothal necklaces of gold pieces worn
by the older women at Samarina consist mainly of old Turkish
gold pieces especially those struck by Sultan Abd-ul-Mejid,
with occasionally one or two Venetian sequins or even Roman
aurei or Byzantine solidi. In more recent times Napoleons
and English sovereigns have been introduced, and earrings of
half Napoleons or half sovereigns are common. But the
modern coins that are most popular for betrothal necklaces
are the big Austrian gold pieces known as " Afstriakadzt,"
which cost two and a half Turkish pounds and have the nominal
value of twenty florins. At two betrothals, at which we were
present, the betrothal gift instead of the necklace was a Turkish
five pound piece. As soon as the bridegroom's party have put
down the betrothal gifts the younger men of the bride's party
demand that they should " whiten " the plate. To " whiten "
the plate the bridegroom's party throw into it some silver
coins never less than a dollar, so that two or three days later
the bride's party may make merry with roast mutton and wine.
Then the bride's party put the bride's ring in the plate. The
priest says a short prayer, takes the rings in his hand and
exchanges them three times. The bride's ring, after he has
kissed it, he gives to the bridegroom's party for each to kiss
in turn. So the bride's ring is kept by the bridegroom's
party, who give it to him to wear when they return to his house.
A similar ceremony is gone through with the bridegroom's
ring which is kissed in turn by all the members of the bride's
party who keep it, and give it to the bride, with the other
betrothal gifts. The bride however does not wear any of
these gifts as long as she is betrothed, but entrusts them to
a sister, a cousin or a bosom friend to wear for her. When
each kisses the ring he wishes " Hdirlitka shi stefane tune ! "
which means " Here's to the wedding, good luck (lit. good
bridal crowns) ! " Immediately after the exchange of rings
they begin to sing the three songs which are always sung on
these occasions usually in the order here given. Never are
more or fewer songs sung. Formerly this was the moment
when it was the custom to fire off guns and rifles, and any one
of either party, who possessed a firearm, would bring it with

BETROTHAL CUSTOMS 107

him and fire it off as often as he Hked, as soon as the first song
was begun. Latterly this has been put down by the Turkish
government. The first song, which is Greek, is : —

The maiden from the east and the youth from Stamboul, the
two strangers have met in a strange garden. You are a stranger and
I am a stranger, let us two meet. I have a thousand gold pieces and
five hundred piastres. Come maiden let us stay, let us spend the
evening. I have three hundred and two gold pieces in a golden hand-
kerchief. Take them maiden and count them, take them, reckon
them.

The second song is in Vlach and is given below as the
seventh in Appendix IV.

The third and last song is Greek :~-

From rock to rock I walk, from stone to stone. Wlaere am I to
find a good mate, good and honourable, like a swift horse, like a fast
plough ox, like a good wife who honours her husband, like two affec-
tionate brothers who love one another ? And now an attempt is made
to part them. And what cause can be found to part them ? You
have vineyards and fields to divide. All that are in the middle and
are good, take them master ; and all that are on the border and are
bad give them to your brother. Find such cause against him that
you may go and kill him.

Papayeoryiu, who has published an account of the Samarina
betrothal and wedding ceremonies, gives a different song
instead of this. We have never heard it sung ourselves at this
point, but it is still known in the village and is sung during the
merrymaking that follows the formal ceremony.

After the singing of these songs the bridegroom's party
departs on its way back to his house. On their way back they
sing loudly and joyfully this Greek song : —

Bright little moon light me on my road. I hasten to pass the
streets and cross the bridges. Far away there on Olympus an aged
stag pastures, and his eyes ever weep. He pours forth red tears, red
and green, and tears all blue.

Each member of the party takes a handful of flour with
him, and when they arrive at the house and are received by
the bridegroom, they throw the flour over his head and face
and say " May you grow white like the flour ! " by way of

io8 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

wishing him long Hfe. The bride is treated in the same way
by her friends and relations. After that both at the bride's
and at the bridegroom's they sit down to a hearty supper, and
the rest of the evening is spent in dancing and singing. If
musicians can be procured they dance to music. Otherwise
they sing songs to which they dance.

When the bridegroom's party leaves the bride's house they
look about for something to steal, a pillow, photographs, or
any other small object that can be taken unobserved. These
are presented by them to the bridegroom on their return to
his house and are given back the next day to the bride's
family.

The next day about noon or soon after the friends and
relations of the bridegroom collect again at his house and then
go in a body to the bride's house together with the bridegroom
who thus pays his first formal call on his future parents-in-law.
They are entertained with batter cakes, roast lamb and other
refreshments, but since batter cakes form the prominent
dish this call is known technically as " going to eat batter
cakes at the mother-in-law's." Again they dance, sing and
make merry till the evening.

At the betrothal the two families usually also fix the time
for the wedding, which usually takes place a year hence at the
festival of the Assumption. During all this year the bride-
groom never sees the bride. If he calls unexpectedly on her
family in hopes of seeing her at the first alarm of his coming
she will hide herself. Such modesty is highly prized, and
any betrothed maiden who breaks through the estabhshed
custom is thought no better than she should be. Thus the
bridegroom during the year of betrothal can see the object
of his affections only by accident. The future bride will not
attend festivals where she is likely to meet her betrothed,
except that of the Transfiguration which is especially a girls'
festival and from which young men are supposed to keep away,
though they rarely do so.

During the time of betrothal the relations of the bridegroom
go from time to time to the bride's house with" poamile," the
fruits. Each one of the bridegroom's family buys a ring, a

PLATE XVI

1. SA.MAKINA: THK HOUSK OF PACATSA

2. SAMARINA: lAKINc; THK HKIDK ON HOK.SKHACK FROM HKR H

OME

MARRIAGE CUSTOMS 109

kerchief, and one or two pounds of sweets. They put them
in a basket, which is given to a boy to carry on his head, the
basket being covered with a white cloth, and they go in pro-
cession to the bride's house. First comes the boy with the
basket, then the sisters and cousins of him who sends the fruits.
The bride when she receives the gifts and takes them out of the
basket puts in their place two or three pairs of home knitted
socks, and a handkerchief for the boy who carries the basket.
At lent again the bridegroom's relations send similar gifts,
with the same formalities, but instead of sweets they put in
halva, a Turkish sweetmeat made of honey, sugar and sesame,
which is a favourite lent en food in the Orthodox Church. For
Easter again the bridegroom sends the bride an Easter candle
for her to use in church at the Easter service.

Marriage

The earliest day in the summer for a wedding to be cele-
brated is the festival of St Elijah on July 20th ; but this does
not often happen, and if the day of St Elijah comes in the
middle of the week, the wedding will take place on the follow-
ing Sunday. Most of the weddings at Samarina are cele-
brated at the festival of the Assumption whether it falls on a
week day or a Sunday. Those which for one reason or another
may have been delayed, will take place on one of the Sundays
following the Assumption. The latest day for a wedding is
the festival of St Mary the Less as the Vlachs call it, which is
in reality the feast of the birth of the Virgin and falls on Sep-
tember 8th. Rarely is a wedding postponed beyond this day
or the Sunday that follows it. In the account here given of
the customs observed at a wedding at Samarina, we have
assumed for the sake of convenience that it takes place on a
Sunday.

When the year of betrothal is nearly complete, and both
families are ready for the wedding they finally decide some
five or six days beforehand when it shall actually be celebrated.
The first sign of the imminence of the wedding is the " throwing
down of the trousseau " at the bride's home. This is done

no THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

during the last week before the wedding, and means that the
trousseau is ready and is laid out for inspection by any relation
or friend who wishes to see it. The trousseau consists of
rugs, blankets, pillow-cases, kerchiefs, stockings, frocks and
garments of all kinds. Usually the bride's parents try to pro-
vide her with as many clothes as she is likely to need for the rest
of her life. If the wedding is to take place on a Sunday, on
the Saturday morning the invitations are sent out to all the
friends and relations of the families. Often as many as two
or three hundred invitations are sent out. They are written
on slips of paper in purified Vlach or Greek, but never in the
spoken language, and distributed by small boys. They
usually take the following or some similar form : —

Doamna shi Domnul au haraua si Va faka kunuskut

martarea a featU'ei a lor — ^

ku
Dl.

shi va parakalsesku ta si avets buna vrearea si tin'isitsi ku yinirea
avoastra ngrunarea a lor tsi va s faka tu 15 di Avgustu oara 8 a la
turka la bisearika Stamaria tsea Mare

Samarina, 14 Avgustu 19 10
Parintsari

Eyapscrg^m 'TrupuKCcXao 'tva, Trj^riaiTi uvpiov olzoyzviax^oig Tfjv (tt&i^ip

70V vlov [JjOV

(jbiToi Tfjg A.icT'Trtv/^og

Y.v%o[JbS hoi vfjbvv zKi Kocrd to&ov co(,g
h ^o(,^[Jijtt,^i vri TTi 20ri 8/91 1

0 TTOlTrjp

On Saturday afternoon the groomsmen and the brides-
maids meet at the bridegroom's house " to put on their aprons."
The groomsmen [furtatsl) are three or four or more unmarried
cousins, or friends of the bridegroom who act as stewards at
the wedding. They serve wine to the guests, lay the tables,

MARRIAGE CUSTOMS iii

and clear them, and have to do anything the bridegroom
orders. The bridesmaids (surate) are unmarried cousins of
the bridegroom, and are always at least one less in number
than the groomsmen. They are the servants of the bride and
the women guests. They lead out the bride, they take her
to kiss the hands of guests, they wait on her and see that she
is given food to eat. The sign of office worn by groomsmen
and bridesmaids alike is a plain white apron (Plate XVIII 2) .
The groomsmen fetch the musicians who have been hired
beforehand by the bridegroom for the whole time that the
wedding festivities last. The sums paid to these musicians
vary according to their abilities, but a good party can com-
mand as much as two Turkish pounds for playing at a wedding
during the three or four days the festivities last. In addition
they are given gifts of money by the guests and spectators.
The leader is summoned by a nod and the giver makes the
gift by sticking the coins on to the musician's forehead.
The custom is that the friends and relations of one who is
dancing should thus " tip " the musicians. For instance the
members of the bride's family will shower coins on them when
the bride leads the dance. Similarly a young man will stick
a humble gift of three or four piastres on the leader's forehead
when his best friend is dancing. A favourite coin to give is
the big bronze hundred-para piece.

When the groomsmen, bridesmaids and musicians are all
assembled they go with the bridegroom's gifts to the bride, a
ceremony which is called taking the ghdlikd to the bride. The
ghalikd is a low, broad basket in which are placed the gifts, a
veil, tinsel strips for decorating the bride's hair, scents, henna,
brooches, combs, mirrors, soap, a handkerchief and sweets.
They go in procession, the musicians leading the way followed
immediately by the boy who carries the basket on his head
covered with a white cloth ; the rear is brought up by the
groomsmen, and other male friends of the bridegroom. At the
bride's house they are given refreshments, wine, raki, Turkish
delight, or preserves, and they sit down for a short time while the
musicians play for any of the female members of the bride's
family to dance if they wish. The bride empties the basket

112 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

and puts in socks for the bridegroom and his parents, and either
socks or handkerchiefs for the groomsmen. When they have
finished dancing they return to the bridegroom's and dance there
again. In the evening the groomsmen with the musicians go
again to the bride's house, where all dance till dawn especially
the women folk of the bride's family. The groomsmen de-
mand that the bride should come out and dance. She then
makes her appearance dressed in one of the gowns forming part
of her trousseau, and dances with the senior groomsman. The
gown she wears is dark and usually of silk but may be of any
dark coloured stuff, and she, though holding herself rather
stiffly, does not clasp her hands in front of her or behave in the
doll-like fashion she has to adopt on the morrow. Sometimes
the bridegroom will come with the groomsmen, but he is re-
quired to sit in a corner and not make himself conspicuous or
dance. The whole party sits down to eat at the bride's and
many small tables are brought in, and after eating they dance
till dawn with frequent refreshments of wine or raki. Towards
dawn the groomsmen depart with the musicians to the bride-
groom's. They send the musicians away to sleep, but without
their instruments which the groomsmen hold as an earnest of
the musicians' presence on the morrow. Then each retires
to snatch a few hours' sleep before the real labours of the
wedding begin. On the Saturday evening the women, but
especially the girls of both families, put henna on the nails
and palms of their hands, and this is also done to the
bride.

On the Sunday morning a married sister or cousin of the
bridegroom with a boy goes round to distribute one kulaku
each to the nunu, groomsmen and bridesmaids. The kulaku is
placed in a basket and covered with an embroidered cloth
which the boy carries under his arm. This is the official
invitation to the wedding. The receiver of the kulaku puts in
the basket some rice or sweets, and gives refreshments to the
bringers and one or two piastres apiece.

Towards midday the groomsmen summon the musicians to
the bridegroom's house where all his relations and friends
assemble for the ceremony of shaving the bridegroom. A

MARRIAGE CUSTOMS 113

barber is called to the house, and as soon as he begins his work
the company present throw money, piastres or halfpence, into
his basin, and sing this Greek song which has special reference
to the shaving of the bridegi-oom : —

On the rock sits the bridegroom, and the rock gave forth water
for them to shave the bridegroom. The hand which shaves him holds
a piece of gold. Silver razor move gently, gently lest the hair be
scattered.

When the bridegroom is shaved, he is made to stand upright
in a shallow metal dish, and changes all his clothes from head
to foot. Every garment has to be quite new, and if he wears
the Vlach national costume, he has to put on the white clothes
which are the distinguishing mark of a bridegroom. While he
is dressing those present sing a special song which is usually
that sung also at christening feasts and has been given above.
Meanwhile at the bride's house the bride is prepared for her
wedding with similar ceremonies. While she is being dressed
they sing this Greek song : —

Upstairs, downstairs, in the lofty palaces, go mother fetch my
hidden frocks. I would be a bride that I may worship the cross and
kiss hands.

While her hair is being combed they sing this Greek
song : —

My silver comb move gently, gently lest her hair be scattered, the
hair of her head, and a stranger take it and make it a charm.

As in the case of the song referring to the shaving of the
bridegroom, so in this song too the last lines refer to the idea
that a charm to bind a person can be made from a lock of his
hair. Consequently when hair is cut or shaved it must not be
scattered, but carefully collected and burnt.

Soon after noon the wedding starts, as the phrase is, and
before this the majority of those invited by the bridegroom's
family will have assembled at the house. First of all the
bridegroom attended only by the groomsmen and the male
members of his party goes in procession with the musicians
leading the way to the bride's home to kiss his mother-in-law's
hand. After he has done this and they have amused them-
8

114 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

selves with songs and dancing there they return to the bride-
groom's house. After a short interval the bridegroom's party
forms in procession once more and moves off to the nunu. The
procession is formed as before, but this time the women of the
bridegroom's family join and bring up the rear. The nunu is
either a friend of the bridegroom, or some older man. He acts
as a kind of godfather to the happy pair, and has the duty of
exchanging the rings and crowns during the wedding ceremony.
He also is supposed to act as godfather to the children. At
the house of the nunu the party stop for a short time, and are
joined by his party, for the nunu too has the right of inviting
his friends and relations to the wedding. He invites " with
the wooden flask " as the saying goes, sending round to all, he
wishes to invite, a boy with a wooden flask of wine. The boy
offers the flask to the person to be invited saying " You are
invited by the nunu," and the one invited then takes the
flask and drinks saying " Here's to the wedding, and good
luck to us." When the procession moves off from the house
of the nunu his party takes its place immediately after the
musicians. In front of his party goes a boy carrying a tray
on which are five wax candles, the roll of stuff for a frock
which is his gift to the bride, the crowns if the nunu gives them,
and some sweets mixed with barley and rice. The crowns are
metal circlets with two raised semi-circular bands crossing one
another on the top. If the nunu does not give the crowns then
those belonging to the church are used, for each church has a
pair for use at weddings. Then the whole procession returns
again to the bridegroom's house to pick up any guests who
may not have joined the procession hitherto, and then finally
starts for the bride's house.

Before the party reaches the bride's house one of the grooms-
men mounted on a horse goes on ahead to receive sihdrik'e, and
to give the news that the bridegroom is coming. As soon as
the procession arrives the first groomsman goes in to put on the
bride's shoes, for he carries with him a kerchief in which are a
kulaku and a pair of shoes. When he kneels to put on the
shoes he puts some small coins in them, and the girls around
the bride hit him with their fists and do not let him go till he

MARRIAGE CUSTOMS 115

has thrown down some small coins for them to scramble for.
They also sing the following Greek song : —

Put me on a pair of shoes, groomsman, and a ring, and put your
hand in your silver purse, and if you have silver coins treat us. Do
not grieve for the gold pieces, and if you have half piastres give to the
gallant lads.

While the groomsman is putting on the bride's shoes her
mother is " girding the bridegroom with his sash," for it is the
custom that the mother-in-law should on this occasion give him
a silken sash, which is carefully preserved and worn by the
bridegroom on all great occasions in his after life. When the
mother-in-law puts on the sash she places near the bridegroom's
foot a glass full of water. When the fastening of the sash is
done, the bridegroom throws a dollar into the glass, and then
kicks it over. Then when the bridegroom and the groomsmen
leave the house two male cousins of the bride refuse to let the
groomsmen leave without giving the hundred and ten paras.
The groomsmen pretend that they do not want to give anything
and resist, but finally give the required coin, a bronze hundred
para piece which was current in Samarina at a hundred and ten
paras. The trousseau is then carried out and loaded on mules
brought for the purpose. Meanwhile the nunu and his party
have been singing and dancing in the courtyard outside with
the other guests. They usually sing this Greek song, of which
a Vlach version is known : —

Black-eyed maidens watch us, blue-eyed maidens address us ; two
other maids have come as well. Which shall I take, which shall I
leave ? Black Eyes wants fine clothes ; Blue Eyes wants gold pieces.
You are better Black Eyes, for fine clothes become you.

After the bridegroom and his party have come out of the
house and loaded the trousseau, they move off with the nunu
and his party in the same order as before to the church. Then
the bride is brought out of her home dressed in a white silk frock
and wearing a veil ; her hair is decorated with tinsel. She carries
herself very stiffly like a doll and moves very slowly. Her
eyes are all but shut and she holds her hands clasped in front
of her. She is supported on either side by a brother, a first

ii6 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

cousin, or by one of the groomsmen, and is led gently forward.
As soon as she comes out of the house she is given a glass of
wine to drink, and when she has drunk she throws the glass
backwards over her shoulder and breaks it. When she crosses
the threshold she must do so with the right foot first. While
all this is being done the bride's party sing this Vlach song : —

They have taken you, they have seized you, my beautiful one !
They have taken you to foreign lands, my darling, to foreign lands
and distant. For what cause, mother, have you driven me from my
home ? I have not driven you forth, my girl, for I send you to your
home and to your household.

When the bride has come out into the courtyard these three
songs are sung in Greek : —

In the centre of the courtyard a partridge stands and speaks,
" Where are you brothers ? Come here that you may send me forth ! "
'-And do not fear tender one, we are all round about and all fire our
muskets."

To this the bridegroom's party reply : —
Your village we have trodden, your maiden we have taken,
and the bride's party answer : —

Come good gossip, what great evil do I do that you should send
the hawk to take my partridge away from me, and my parish is disgraced
and yours is adorned.

As the last line of the first of these three songs shows it was
at this point that the cousins and brothers of the bride used to
fire off guns, rifles and revolvers. After this singing is done
the whole procession moves off to the church the bride and
her party bringing up the rear. Often the bride is mounted
on horseback (Plate XVI 2) and accompanied by two young
male relations also mounted. Sometimes she even stands
upright on the saddle. As they make the way slowly to the
church many songs are sung.

When at last they reach the church the nunu with the
nund, who is his wife if he is married or his mother if he is a
bachelor, accompanied by the boy carrying the tray with
the crowns and other paraphernalia enter first. Next follows

MARRIAGE CUSTOMS 117

the bridegroom with the groomsmen and the bridesmaids,
and lastly the bride with her two supporters crossing the
threshold right foot first. All the rest of the guests remain
outside and dance to the music provided, and with them will
probably be one or two of the groomsmen. The dances are
all ring-dances, those taking part in them joining hands and
only the leader executing any movement at all elaborately.
The members of the different parties keep together and do
not intermingle, and are arranged thus : first come the men
of all the parties, who do not always keep apart, next the
women of the party of the mmu, next the women of the bride-
groom's party, and lastly the women of the bride's party.
Thus a dance consisting of from five to seven rings is formed,
the inner ring being the leading one.

The wedding service is done according to the liturgy of
the Orthodox Eastern Church and is read in Greek, as far as
Samarina is concerned, though the priests are of course Vlachs
and natives of Samarina. As a rule two priests officiate at
a wedding especially on days when there are three or four
weddings at the same church. When the bridal party enter
the church they stand in front of a table placed in the middle
of the nave. On the table is a New Testament, and by it are
placed the crowns and the kulaku brought by the nunu
from which three small pieces are cut, the rings, and a glass
of wine. On the west side of the table stands the bridegroom
on the right with the bride on his left. Immediately behind
them is the nunu ; the nund stands on the bride's left and by
them is the boy with the tray. Around them where they
please stand the groomsmen, the bridesmaids, and any other
friends or relations who have come into the church. As soon
as the priest begins the first prayer each groomsman has to put
on his book one or two halfpennies. When the priest has
finished the prayer he takes the four candles and lights them,
and gives one each to the bride and bridegroom, and two to
the nunu. Then he takes the rings, makes the sign of the
cross with them three times, and puts the bride's ring on the
bridegroom, and the bridegroom's ring on the bride's hand.
Then the nunu changes the rings three times and finally the

ii8 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

priest joins their hands by Hnking their Httle fingers together.
After some prayers the priest takes the crowns, and having
made the sign of the cross with them to both bride and bride-
groom, places them on their heads. In the meantime the
nund has spread on their shoulders the roll of stuff fastening
it with pins. Then the nunu with arms crossed changes the
crowns three times. At the end of the service the priest
takes the bridegroom by the right hand, and he in his turn
holds the bride by the hand, while the nunu supports them
from behind. In this manner all four circle three times
round the table stopping to make a reverence at each side in
turn. During this the company present take handfuls of
sweets and rice from the tray carried by the boy, and pelt
the bridegroom, bride and nunu. The small boys, who have
managed to elude the verger and squeeze into the church, go
scrambling for the sweets about the floor. This done the
father-in-law and mother-in-law go up to the bridegroom and
bride and kiss them first on the forehead, then on the cheeks.
The bride kisses their right hands and as she does so they
give her a small coin. After them the groomsmen and brides-
maids and any near relation present come and salute them in
the same way. As soon as they have kissed the bride the
others, who stand round, thump them heartily on the shoulders.
With this the wedding ceremony ends and all go out of the
church. If, as is sometimes done, the service takes place in
the bridegroom's house everything is done in exactly the
same manner.

The first to come out of the church is the nunu, next the

bridegroom, and last the bride again crossing the threshold

right foot first. If while the service has been going on another

wedding party has entered, the other members of it crowd

round the bride so that the bride who has just been married

shall not see the other as she goes out. This is done because

it is believed that if the newly married bride sees one or more

other brides in the church her husband will ha\e just so many

wives besides herself, or in other words that she will not live

long and that her husband will marry again. As soon as

they have come out of the church they drive the musicians

MARRIAGE CUSTOMS 119

away from the dance, and form one large dancing ring. This
is lead by the nunu, and in the middle between the women and
men the bridegroom is placed with his mother-in-law on his
left hand. On the other side of the bridegroom are the grooms-
men. The bride stands apart attended by the nund and
bridesmaids. But after the dance has gone round once or
twice the nunu goes up to the bride, takes her and places her
in the ring on the bridegroom's left so that she is between
her husband and her mother. They dance to this Greek
song : —

Come out youths and dance, come out maidens and sing, that you
may see and learn how love is caught. It is caught by the eye, it
descends to the lips and from the lips to the heart ; there it takes root
and does not move, but only sends out roots and fibres, and green
flowers.

After they have danced a little they break up the ring and
the procession is re-formed in the same order which was ob-
served on the road to the church. Then they move off to
the bridegroom's house singing songs of different kinds. As
soon as they reach the house the party of the nunu and the
women begin to dance in the court, while the bridegroom's
party sing this Greek song till the bride approaches the door : —

Come out mother and mother-in-law to see your son who is coming ;
he is bringing a partridge dressed with gold coins and she is hidden
by them. Enter, enter little partridge into the bridegroom's house ;
here build your nest and here nestle.

At the door stands the mother-in-law waiting for the bride.
She has in her hands an apron, a pair of buckles for a belt, or a
chain of steel or silver to which a knife is attached, a plate with
butter, a lump of carded white wool off the distaff, and a
kulaku. As the bride crosses the threshold right foot foremost,
she takes with three fingers a little butter, and anoints the
lintel above her head three times with it. Then the mother-in-
law breaks over the bride's head the kulaku, the fragments of
which are snatched by the boys and youths standing round to
the great discomfort of the bride who cannot see what is being
done above her head, Next the mother-in-law pulls the hand-

120 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

ful of wool to pieces over the bride's head saying, " Long hfe
to you, and prosperity, and may you grow white hke this wool ! "
and kisses her on the forehead, when the bride bends to kiss
her hand. Finally the bride is invested with the apron, and
the buckles or chain as signifying that she is now mistress
of the house. The whole party, bridegroom, bride, nunu,
groomsmen and bridesmaids, then go upstairs and sit down for
a short time. Then they come out into the courtyard or some
suitable open space near the house and dance (Plate XVII).
The bridegroom dances with the men, and the bride with the
women of the bridegroom's family. But if the nunu dances and
leads the first dance as is usual on these occasions, he dances
in the men's ring, the bridegroom in that of the women of his
family, and the bride with the women of her family. The
dances are all ring-dances, and as a rule at the request of the
nuni't when he is leading the dance the bridegroom and bride
dance together, each in turn leading the ring. In olden days
the nunu acted as master of the ceremonies at the festivities
on the evening of the wedding and his orders were supposed
to be obeyed without question, but now this is nearly obsolete.
The dancing continues till dusk and then the guests begin to
depart. First to go are the relations and friends of the bride.
The bridegroom and bride see them off walking a little way with
them, and they and their companions sing in Greek : —

If you are bent on departing farewell to you. If you pass by ray
mother's house greetings to her.

As each says good-bye he shakes hands with the bridegroom,
and kisses the bride on the forehead when she stoops to kiss
his hand, and he at the same moment " tips " her by slipping
a small coin into her hand. Men say good-bye first, then women
and lastly the girls, and as they go they sing in Greek : —

We started with the sun, we depart late with the moon. I am
coming and you are sleeping, come wake up that you may enjoy life.
Wretched Platamona what are the maidens within your walls ?
Grecian maidens, Turkish maidens and chieftains' little daughters.
High up in a kiosk they sit and watch for the ships that come from
Egypt laden with rouge.

PLATE XJ'/I

MARRIAGE CUSTOMS I2i

As soon as they reach the house of the bride's parents they
dance in the courtyard there singing : —

From the courtyard a maid is missing, and from the parish one is
missing, and from her mother one is missing, and from her brothers
one is missing.

After this they separate and each returns to his home.

After the bride's family has gone the bridegroom and bride
see the nu7tu off with similar ceremonies and sing this song in
Greek : —

Stay nunii to-night as well ; I have five lambs ready roasted, and
another five ready spitted and a stewed hare.

The nunu however is not to be tempted by such good cheer
and departs with all his company. Occasionally the bride-
groom will see him home.

As it is by now dusk the bridal party and the guests go
upstairs into the bridegroom's house and dance till dinner is
ready. As the company is numerous three or four tables are
required. The bridegroom sits at one table with the elders,
and the rest of the male guests as they please at the others.
The bride sits on a stool on one side and rises whenever the
men drink wine. When they have finished eating they sing
songs while still sitting at table, and they tease the bride and
make jests at her expense in the hope of making her laugh and
so lose for a moment her modest composure. Later in the
evening they begin to dance again and then many young men,
relations or friends of the bridegroom, bride or of one of the
groomsmen, will come in to make merry. When the guests
arrive and sit down the bride is led by two bridesmaids, one
on each side of her, to kiss their hands, and they, when the
bride takes their hands in hers, slip into her palm a small coin
never less than a halfpenny. On days when there are several
weddings the young men of Samarina who are not closely
connected with any family that has a wedding will form bands
about six or eight strong, and go visiting the various houses
where there are weddings in the evening and join in the dancing.
At the bridegroom's home the dancing, and other festivities

122 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

are continued till shortly before dawn. Many of course retire
to sleep at an earlier hour, but the bridal party does not cease
merrymaking till just before dawn. Then they send away the
musicians again without their instruments, and each tries to
enjoy a few hours' sleep, before the festivities of the Monday are
begun.

Early on the Monday morning the bridegroom's mother, the
bridesmaids, and other female relations of the family are astir
and set about preparing food, for soon after midday the bride's
relatives will come with bubghala. A boy with a wooden
flask of wine in his hand is sent round to all the relations of the
bride to bid them prepare, for soon after noon they are to go to
the bridegroom's with the bubghala. Presently from all parts
of the village where relations of the bride live women and girls
are to be seen hastening to the home of the bride's parents.
Each carries under her arm a broad, shallow basket covered
with an embroidered cloth (Plate XVHI i). All assemble
at the bride's home and anxiously await the coming of the
groomsmen with the musicians. Soon after their arrival, a
procession is formed and they go to the bridegroom's. In front
of all go two groomsmen, carrying a long wooden spit on which
is a lamb roasted whole ; they are followed by the musicians,
the other groomsmen, the male members of the bride's family,
and the female relatives of the bride each with her basket.
At the door of the bridegroom's house a groomsman awaits
them with a jug of wine and several glasses. They go up-
stairs where the groomsmen serve refreshments. Presently the
tables are spread and they eat the dishes prepared by the
bridegroom's family. When these are finished, each female
relative of the bride brings out from her basket the dishes she
has prepared and distributes them round the tables. This
meal is called bubghala because together with the batter cakes
and other sweets which are made for it, it is the custom that
each should also make one dish of bubghala, which consists
of breadcrumb crumbled up and fried with sugar. After
eating they sit at table and sing songs for a short time and then
go out and dance in the courtyard till dusk when the bride's
relations depart with the same ceremonies that were observed

MARRIAGE CUSTOMS 123

on the first day. The other guests stay at the bridegroom's
and dance and merrymake till midnight or later.

As said above all the trousseau is taken to the bridegroom's
on the Sunday when the bride is taken from her home to the
church. But one dress, the second best, is left behind at the
bride's home. This is brought to her by her relations on
the Monday when they come with bubghala and those who
bring this frock, dress the bride in it there and then, and she
wears it throughout the rest of the festivities.

On the Tuesday after lunch the bridegroom's family, the
groomsmen, and the bridesmaids meet together again at the
bridegroom's. They put a jug in the bride's hand and take
her out to draw water. First in the procession go the musicians,
next follows the bridegroom with the groomsmen and other
men, and the bride conducted by the bridesmaids and escorted
by women brings up the rear. Three conduits are visited in
turn, and as they near each they sing this in Greek : —

If Anthitsa comes for water, do not give her water, but only ask
her, " Anthitsa whom do you love ? Yianni the merchant."

When they reach the conduit the bride fills the jug with
water and empties it, she refills it and empties it again, and
does so yet a third time. When she fills the jug for the third
time the bridegroom throws a few halfpennies into it, and
these are emptied out with the water into the mud and eagerly
scrambled for by the small boys who crowd round. While
the bride does this the rest sing in Vlach : —

Fill sister, empty brother, to cause our sister anger.

The first conduit visited is that nearest to the house and
that to which the bride will have to go to draw water for daily
use. The other two are chosen according to fancy, and
exactly the same things are done at both of them. From the
third conduit they return to the bridegroom's and dance till
the evening. As they reach the house they sing in Greek : —

Let my mother-in-law know that I come from the spring cold and
frozen to find the fire alight and the pasty in the oven.

124 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

Early on the Wednesday morning the groomsmen rise and
go about to find a rolling-pin, for on this day they set the
bride to make a pita. As they approach the bride they bring
out from under their great -coats one hand which holds a rose
twig with as many thorns as possible. This they show to the
bride and ask, " Do you see bride, what a fine rolling-pin I
have brought you ? ' ' She smiles in a sickly manner. When
all are assembled they choose out the rolling-pin which has
most thorns, and is most crooked. Then some ashes are put
into a flat tin dish and the bride is set to stir in the yeast.
She pours water on the ashes and the groomsmen, the brides-
maids, and the others throw halfpennies into the ashes. As
soon as the bride puts out a hand to mix in the yeast the grooms-
men flick her hands with the stinging nettles which they have
in their other hands hidden under their coats. Next a pastry
board is brought and the bride takes a handful of the wet ashes
and begins to roll out the leaves of pastry. When she very
timidly lays her hands on the thorny rolling-pin to roll out
the ashes, they sting her again with the nettles and so the
play is carried on till the bridegroom intervenes and takes the
bride away.

The same day in the afternoon the bridegroom, bride,
groomsmen, and bridesmaids and other women go to the
bride's mother to eat batter cakes. There they eat, sing,
and dance till the evening. With the ceremonies of this day
the duties of the groomsmen and bridesmaids come to an end,
and when they leave the bridegroom's house on this evening
after escorting the bridal pair home, they take off their aprons,
which hitherto they have worn continually, as a sign that their
duties are done, and give them to the bride.

On the Thursday, Sunday and Tuesday evenings following
the bride and bridegroom go to dine and sleep at the home of
the parents, which is known as going azhoru.

Some time after the wedding the bridal pair invite both
the families and entertain them. What is done on such occa-
sions depends on the pleasure of the hosts and guests. On
the Sundays and other feast-days succeeding the wedding-
day the bride accompanied by her mother-in-law and one or

PLATE XV III

I. HKIM,I.\(; IHK Hir.t.HALA

.J

liKIUt AM) l;klDUi.Jx""M Willi I HE BKl OESM AIDS AM> i , Ki " .-,] -,M i: N

SAMARINA: WKDDINc; C?:REM0NIES

MARRIAGE CUSTOMS 125

two other women goes to visit the nunu, the groomsmen and
the bridesmaids, and make gifts to them. To the nunu " she
throws a shirt and socks " as the saying goes, and he " tips "
her with a dollar. To the groomsmen she gives a pair of
socks, and if she pleases to their mothers a pair of stockings,
and they give in return five piastre pieces. The bridesmaids
and their mothers are given stockings, and they also are ex-
pected to give five piastres. This ceremony is the last obser-
vance directly connected with the wedding according to the
modern custom of Samarina, though very probably in days
gone by the festivities were much more protracted. For
instance Papayeoryiu has noted many observances which are
no longer used to-day. He says that at the betrothal the rings
were put into a glass of wine when the bridegroom's party
produced the betrothal gifts. Afterwards before the formal
exchange of the rings they were crossed three times in the glass
by a young man whose father and mother were both alive.

As to the wedding customs he says that the preparations
began on the Thursday before. On this day the bridegroom
sent the ghalikd to the bride. On the same day too the grooms-
men and bridesmaids, who were chosen from those whose
fathers and mothers were still alive, met at the bridegroom's
house to make the bread for the wedding. The yeast was
mixed in by the first bridesmaid who carried a knife and pistol
while the others sang this Greek song : —

Your first leavening a maiden leavens for you, a maiden with
mother, with father, with brothers, with cousins.

On the Friday the trousseau was laid out for inspection at
the bride's home, and on the Saturday the groomsmen went
round with a wooden flask of wine to invite the guests. Most
of the changes seem to have been made with a view to shorten-
ing the wedding festivities and making them simpler and so
less costly. Throughout the wedding customs there are many
indications both in the songs and the various observances
which seem to point to the fact that marriage by capture was
recently the Vlach custom, but we have found no other
evidence of this.

126 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

Burial

When any person is dead an old man or woman is called
in to lay out the body and put on it new clothes. Then the
body is laid out in the centre of the room with an oil light
burning at its head and with an ikon laid on its breast. The
women of the family then come and weep round the body and
sing dirges. The Vlach women are noted for these dirges,
and often improvise them. At Samarina the dirges may be
either in Greek or Vlach, and it is noticeable that the typical
instance of this custom given by Fauriel refers to a woman of
the Vlach village of Metsovo. If death occurs in the morning,
the funeral takes place the same afternoon ; but if it occurs
in the afternoon, the funeral is postponed till the next morn-
ing. When the appointed hour arrives word is sent to the
priests who put on their vestments, and come to the house.
After the priest has said a prayer four men raise the body
and put it in the coffin. On the spot where the body was
laid out they break a glass. Then the funeral procession is
formed. In front of all goes a boy carrying the coffin lid ;
next come two women with broad, shallow baskets under
their arms, covered with cloths. One of the baskets contains
the coUyva which is blessed by the priest and distributed to
those present after the funeral, and the other some dishes of
meat, which are also eaten after the funeral. Following them
come two or more boys carrying the long poles on which are
fixed representations of cherubim. On each pole a hand-
kerchief is tied by the family of the dead man. Then follows
the priest chanting with two chanters. Following him four men
come carrying the body in the open coffin. Under the coffin
at each end are fixed short poles which project on either side
and serve as handles. To these also handkerchiefs are tied
by the family of the dead. Last come the mourners, the men
first and the women behind with black kerchiefs thrown over
their heads or shoulders. On the way to the church the
priest halts several times and turning round says a prayer
while the others stand still. As soon as the church is reached
two men stand on either side of the door and distribute wax

BURIAL CUSTOMS 127

tapers to all the mourners. The body is placed in the middle
of the church, the women assemble round it, and at the head
stands one of the immediate relations of the dead, the mother,
a sister, or a cousin. Round the coihn lighted candles or
tapers are placed and the mourners also light the tapers that
have been distributed to them. When the service is finished
the mourners kiss the dead for the last time on the forehead.
Then the cofhn is lifted and they go to the grave in the church-
yard. When the cofifin has been laid in the grave the pillow
is removed from it and in its place is put a stone or a pillow-
case filled with earth. After the priest has said another
prayer and thrown a little wine and earth on the face of the
dead, the lid is laid on the cofhn and the grave is filled in.
Three or four days after the funeral the family of the dead
place a monument on the grave. This takes the form of a
long oblong box of planks inverted. At the head is a small
box-like cupboard in which they light tapers or small oil
lights. Again on the top of this a wooden cross is placed, on
which they usually write the name and age of the dead.

After the boiled wheat and the food that has been brought
are distributed and eaten the mourners return to the house
of the dead man's family. At the door stands a man with
a vessel of water, and a shovel with some lumps of charcoal
that have been lighted and put out. He pours water over
the hands of the mourners who thus wash their hands, and
as each enters the house a piece of the charcoal is thrown after
him. They stay a short time in the house and condole with
the family, and each goes home, though some stay to eat
there. At a funeral the only refreshment offered is coffee,
preserves are never offered, and when the mourners receive
the refreshments the only wish uttered is, " Long life
to your excellencies ! " On the second day after the death
the women of the family go to the grave and wail by it, and
distribute boiled wheat again. This is called " giving the
third." On the ninth day they "give the ninth" in a
similar way and on the fortieth day the fortieth, and after a
year they give the year. For a year from the death the family
of the dead gives as refreshment to guests or visitors nothing

128 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

but coffee, and never preserves or sweets. They take no part
in merrymaking of any kind, and the women wear a black
kerchief on their heads for the whole 3^ear. After five or
seven years the grave is opened and the bones are collected
and placed in a small wooden box or in a bag and put in the
bone-house which is attached to every churchyard. Often too
on Sundays or festivals after church the women of the family
will go to the churchyard and sit and wail over the graves of
their dead. At Whitsuntide they celebrate the special festival
of the dead as usual in the Orthodox Church. None of these
funeral customs can be described as peculiarly Vlach. For
instance in the Greek villages of the Zaghori when the body
is carried out of the house a glass or jug is broken in the gate
of the courtyard to prevent the dead taking anything else
with him from the house and to break the power of Charon.
There too the bones must not be dug from the grave in the
even years after the burial, but in the odd years, three, five
and so on.

PLATE XfX

CHAPTER VII
FESTIVALS AND FOLKLORE

NancoT] a'aapfiiraTS'ape cr(rvaTro'r] Travayy'rjppH
2 apfinaTS'ape v'iS ko. aapnTrara'apTja Trjaeprj.

Then a holiday and then a festival,

A holiday not like the holiday of yesterday.

Codex Demonie, f. 91

THIS chapter is only a fragment for it deals primarily
with the festivals and folklore of Samarina as far
as we came in contact with them, and we record
them here to complete our picture of Vlach life as illustrated
by that village. To this we have added notes on folk customs
elsewhere which we have seen or enquired about on the spot.
The fair of Ayios Akhillios at Ghrevena can hardly be
considered as a festival for it serves mainly as a meeting-place
for the families on their way up to their villages, Samarina,
Avdhela, Perivoli and Smiksi. The first true festival occurs
about a month after this. It takes place on the day of St
Peter and St Paul, one of the great feasts of the Orthodox
Eastern Church, and the two following days. All the mule-
teers come back to the village for it, and the families, which
cannot get up in time for the fair of Ghrevena, will try to
reach the village by Mavronoro, which is the special name for
this festival at Samarina and its three nomad neighbours.
The Vlachs of Verria, who are colonists from these four vil-
lages, also still preserve this name for the festival. It is
derived from the Kupatshar village of Mavronoro near
Ghrevena, where in days gone by they used to hold a fair on
the day of St Peter and St Paul which was very well attended.
Pouqueville refers to the fair, and on the flyleaf of a book
in the monastery of St Barlaam at Meteora some manuscript
notes mention the price silk fetched at this fair in 1786. It
9

130 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

was held at Mavronoro till about i860 and was then trans-
ferred to Ghrevena as the fair of Ayios Akhillios, when that
town became the seat of a kaimmakam. The exact date of
the transference is unknown, but natives of Samarina at
Verria who left their village after 1854 have assured us that
they remember the fair being held at Mavronoro. In Samarina
itself the origin of the name Mavronoro for the day of St Peter
and St Paul is unknown, a fact which shews how soon in
countries which have no written history the origins of things
become obscured. Apparently just as all the Vlachs of Sama-
rina and its neighbours attend the fair of Ghrevena to-day,
so in days gone by they all flocked to Mavronoro. To-day at
Samarina Mavronoro as a festival is not marked by any special
festivities. After the church service which takes place at
Great St Mary's, because the side chapel of that church is
dedicated to these saints, it is the custom to pay calls. The
other two holidays if the weather is fine and warm are devoted
to picnics at the monastery or at the spring in the woods of
K'urista. The comparative unimportance of this festival is
due to the fact that it comes early in the summer.

A few days before Mavronoro is the day of St John the
Baptist, on June 24th. This is celebrated merely as a holi-
day and is not of any great consequence as a church festival,
but at Samarina it is notable for the customs observed by the
girls. On the eve of St John's Day the girls collect together
in bands of between fifteen and twenty and select one as their
leader who is called Arumana. They then dress her as a
bride with any scraps of finery they can procure (Plate XX i) ,
They take a metal jug into which each member of the band
throws a flower to which she has tied some trinket of white
metal belonging to her which she can easily recognise. Then
they start in a kind of bridal procession, all who can holding
umbrellas over their heads especially over the bride who is led
along by two of their number at the head of the procession.
As they start they sing this Vlach song : —

Look how beautiful she is, white and rosy like a Turkish woman.
Look at her chest how she seems like a chosen ram. Look at her
apron how it seems like cheese out of the skin.

FESTIVALS AND FOLKLORE 131

They make their way to three conduits in turn singing any
songs they please on the way, but the majority are in Vlach,
though Greek songs are heard. As they approach the first
conduit they sing in Greek : —

Little spring fenced with stones give us water to drink that you
may see how we sing.

Then the bride takes the jug and fills and empties it three
times exactly as is done in the wedding custom while the
others sing : —

Fill sister, empty brother, to cause our sister anger.
As they move on to the next conduit they sing in Vlach : —

Where shall we stay to-night ? Beyond the sea a caravan passes
loaded with salt and a big lad mounted on a mule with his forelock
combed and his movistache twisted.

At each of the other two conduits the same performance is
gone through, but when they leave the last they keep the metal
jug filled with water. They then take the jug and hide it for
the night in some secret place known to them alone. Usually
they choose a place in the meadows on the outskirts of the
village, for the boys and young men are on the watch to try
to find it and play tricks with it. The next evening on the
day of St John the Baptist they collect together again, fetch
the jug, and go in procession with the bride and repeat the
performance of the evening before in all its details except that
they go to seven conduits instead of three. Then they retire
to some quiet spot and take their trinkets out of the
jug of water singing suitable songs as they do so. They draw
their trinkets one by one and each as she does so looks at it
carefully and tells her fortune by it. She can thus decide
whether she will have good luck or bad, and — this is a sub-
ject of the greatest interest to all girls — find out whether
she will marry

Tinker, tailor.
Soldier, sailor.
Apothecary, ploughboy, thief.

132 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

The trinkets they call klidhone which is Greek, and this
custom of telling fortunes on St John's Day by means of
klidhone is well known in Modern Greek folklore. The custom
however has been borrowed by the Vlachs and is well known
in all the Vlach villages of the south and centre. At Khsura
and Neveska for example the girls go out to the meadows on
the eve of St John's Day and pick a special flower to which
they tie their trinkets. They have a procession in much the
same way as at Samarina and as they pass through the streets
people put money in the jug. At Samarina however they do
not regard the custom merely as that of the klidhone, but as a
rain-charm. There seems little doubt hat we have here two
observances blended into one, the klidhone and the other well-
known custom of Pirpirund. The Pirpirund custom is used
as a rain-charm throughout the Balkans in times of drought
in the summer, but here at Samarina it seems to have been
made annual. We have never heard of the Pirpirund obser-
vances, as such, being done at Samarina, but the word is well
known in the village. For instance, " Mi adrai Pirpirund dip,"
" I became a regular Pirpirund," is a slang phrase for " I was
wet through."

The Pirpirund custom amongst the Vlachs is in brief as
follows. If after the day of St Thomas, April 21st, it does
not rain for three weeks it is very serious for the crops and
meadows, because the early summer rains are most important
for their proper development. Then a girl, usually a poor girl
or a gipsy, is taken and stripped and then dressed in leaves and
flowers and made to walk in procession through the village.
The girls with her sing suitable songs and she herself dances.
As she passes the houses people throw water over her and
wet her thoroughly. The song usually sung is the following
or some variant of it : —

Pirpiruna, Saranduna, give rain, give, that the fields may grow,
the fields and the vineyards, the grass and the meadows.

We have heard of this being done at Turia where the girl
is now not naked, but lightly clad and decked with leaves
and flowers. Wherever there are Vlachs this custom is known

FESTIVALS AND FOLKLORE 133

and the girl who takes the principal part is called Pirpirund,
Perpund, or Pdparund. In Northern Greece, but not south of
Epirus and Thessaly, it is known as Perpenma, Perperia,
Papparuna and Porpatira. It flourishes in Bulgaria in the
east as Peperuda and in the north as Pemperuga. In Roumania
it is called Paparudd or Pdpdlugd, and in Servia and Dalmatia
Dodole or Dudule. The origin of the custom has been claimed
by all these races. The Roumanians and Vlachs point out that
Pdparund and Pirpirund are words that occur in their language,
and mean " poppy " and " butterfly," but they fail to explain
what poppies and butterflies have to do with rain-charms.
Those who claim a Hellenic origin overlook the point that
it only occurs in North Greece, where there is so much mixed
blood, and not in Crete and the south, and they provide a
Greek derivation for Perperia and Porpatira and say it means
merely procession, but it is hard to see why any procession
should be a rain-charm. In Bulgarian too the word Peperuda
means butterfly, and it seems that the custom, if its name is
any criterion, is really Slavonic. One of the few old Slavonic
pagan gods, whose names are known, was Perun the Thunder-
God, whose name at once suggests Pirpirund, and it is per-
fectly natural that he should have to do with rain especially
in the summer-time. Sir Arthur Evans has recorded that near
Uskub he found that the inhabitants of a village Moslem and
christian alike were in the habit of pouring libations of wine
over a Latin inscription to Juppiter in order to produce rain,
though they had no knowledge as to what the stone said.
We were shewn a spot near Monastir where an inscription lies
buried, but no one can dig it up, for it would never stop raining
if they did. When ancient inscribed stones still have such
power, it is not hard to believe that Perun is still invoked
to-day to send the summer showers.

The next festival after Mavronoro is that of the Ayii Anar-
yiri, St Cosmas and St Damian, whose day falls on the ist of
July. This day is observed as a holiday and a service is held
in the church of St Athanasius because its side chapel is dedi-
cated to them. Next on July 20th follows the much more
important festival of St Elijah for which all muleteers will try

134 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

to return. They have time between Mavronoro and St EHjah
to make one journey down into Thessaly and back, since it
takes them from eight to ten days each way allowing for halts
and the selling and buying of their merchandise. This is the
day when the whole parish of St Elijah wears its best clothes
and is at home to receive callers (Plate XIX). All the village
first attends the service in the church, and the rest of the
day will be spent in social entertainments such as calls and
picnics. On July 26th follows the festival of Ayia Paraskevi
to whom the monastery is dedicated, and the whole village
spends the day there. Family parties are made up consisting
of men, women, boys and girls, all mixing together on equal
terms, and soon after dawn they start for the monastery
laden with bread, wine, sweetmeats and a lamb ready to be
roasted and any other provisions they need to enable them to
pass the day in the most enjoyable manner. Each family
selects some shady spot in the meadows round the monastery
and after attending the service in the church roasts its lamb
and consumes its eatables. The day ends with a general
dance of all those present and they return home in the evening.
On August the 6th the other church at the monastery that
called Ayios Sotir celebrates the day of the Transfiguration,
which is a women's festival, for it is the day when the un-
married girls communicate. They have duly fasted for the
previous week and early in the morning start for the monastery
to attend service in the church. The boys and young men,
who are expected to keep away, will sit on the hill of the
church of St Elijah to see what girls are going, and then if they
think it worth while, will follow them to the monastery.
The only other men who go on such days will be the fathers or
husbands of the women going to communicate and any men
who have been invited by the abbot to stay the night with
him and sample the good cheer of the monastery. From this
day up till the day of the Assumption the whole village gives
its mind towards preparing for that great festival, and every-
one is occupied with thoughts of marriage and giving in
marriage. The only break is provided by the festival of St
Athanasius which is held in the church of that name on a

PLATE XX

BTafe

1. SAMARINA: ST. JOHN'S DAY, ARUMANA AT THE CONDUIT OF

PAPAZISI

ELASSONA: VI.ACH QUARTER ON THE LEFT WITH THE MONASTERY
ON THE HILL ABOVE

FESTIVALS AND FOLKLORE 135

Sunday about a week before the Assumption. This is not
the proper day of St Athanasius, for that falls on January
1 8th. But it is the rule that every church at Samarina should
have a festival during the summer in order to collect money
through the offerings of those who attend. The church of St
Athanasius can have no proper festival in the summer except
the unimportant one of the Ayii Anaryiri, and so it celebrates
the day of St Athanasius out of due season with the pious
object of obtaining money for church expenses.

About three days before the day of the Assumption shep-
herds from all the country round appear in the village with the
pick of their lambs, for it is the custom that every pater-
familias at Samarina should roast and eat his own lamb on
this day just as at Easter. The green before Great St Mary's
resembles a sheep fair and there is much animated haggling,
the deceitful Vlach of Samarina attempting to outwit his
subtle Greek and Kupatshar neighbours. In the evenings
the gipsy musicians are to be heard in the wineshops round the
misohori, and much drinking and dancing goes on in order
to welcome friends and relations who have come up for the
annual festival. It is probably highly necessary to drink
good luck and long life to these new arrivals, for most of them
will either be about to be married or will be thinking of pro-
posing for the hand of some girl. When August 15th dawns
the whole village flocks to the service at Great St Mary's,
and it often happens that the bishop of Ghrevena comes up
specially to officiate on this occasion. After the service all
go home to eat their lambs and to prepare for the weddings
which take place soon after noon. Since sixteen or more
weddings may take place on this day, it will easily be under-
stood that for the rest of this day the whole village is given up
to singing and dancing, eating and drinking and all kinds of
amusements. The festival of the Assumption continues with
gradually decreasing vigour for a week, and on the two days
that immediately follow the 15th of August after the service
in the church a great combined dance of the whole village
takes place. They dance to songs on the green of Great St
Mary's. Two long rings are formed, the inner of men and

136 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

the outer of women, and these reach all round the green from
one extremity to the other (Plate IV 2). The men are all
in their best white clothes and the women conspicuous with
the bright red braid on their sarkd's. Towards the end of
the week as the wedding ceremonies come to an end the news
runs through the village first that one and then that another
has become betrothed, and so the feasting that accompanies
betrothals is substituted for the weddings. One form of
amusement is replaced by another, and the old men and
women, who can no longer dance, sit at their doors in the
sun and gossip and discuss how often the would-be bridegroom
had been " beaten " in his previous efforts to secure a bride.
In the evenings bands of boys and young men will be seen
strolling round the village and visiting first one conduit and
then another. They do this in order to see the girls, who will
be drawing water shortly before dusk, and the attentions of the
young men naturally cause much giggling and blushing amongst
them. Thus they pass the time till the feast of St Mary
the Less on September 8th which marks the end of the wedding
season, and the day of the Beheading of St John the Baptist,
a strict fast which comes in the middle of this period, is a
welcome relief to the feasting. After St Mary the Less, which
is a minor edition of the festival of the Assumption, people
begin to leave the village and the families get ready for the
fair at Konitsa and begin to think of paying their bills for the
summer. When the fair of Konitsa is over and the day of
reckoning is done, they pack up and caravans of families go
down through the gathering rains to spend the dark days of
winter in foreign towns.

The winter has its festivals no less than the summer,
there is St Demetrius on October 26th, St Michael on November
8th, and St Nicholas on December 6th. But these for the
Vlachs in general are merely church festivals and holidays.
It is with the approach of Christmas that they celebrate a
great festival that marks the middle of their winter, for then
they know that every day brings them nearer to the time
when they will go out up to their native hills again. On
Christmas Eve in each house a big fire is made to keep Christ

FESTIVALS AND FOLKLORE 137

warm. A shovel is put into it and the ashes are not removed
till Epiphany and the fire must be kept continually alight.
The boys form bands and go wandering about and knock at
door after door with a big stick and sing in Vlach : —

Kolinda, melinda, give me the cake mother for Christ is born in
the stable of the oxen for fear of the Jews.

or in Greek : —

Give me a cake mother that we may go further ; as this year my
lads, as this year, so next year too.

They sing till the door is opened and they are given fruit such
as currants, chestnuts and walnuts. The leader of the band
carries a long thread at his waist with a small piece of stick
at the end. On this they thread the cakes given them, which
are like doughnuts, with a hole in the centre. In other days
when the boys entered the house they sat down a little, and
after a time the householder threw currants and peas on the
floor. The boys then went down on hands and knees and
picked them up with their mouths baaing like sheep. Some-
times each house made a kind of Christmas cake nicely decor-
ated on top with sesame seed and currants which was kept
till Epiphany. Then it was sprinkled with a few drops of
the newly blessed water, broken into pieces and given to
sheep, goats, horses, mules and cattle to keep them well and
healthy. On Christmas Day when he comes out of church
each person takes a leaf of the holm oak or a pinch of salt and
throws it into the fire saying : — " With brides, with sons-in-
law, with children, with lambs, with kids. For many years ! "
If what is put in the fire crackles all will be well for the year
and vice versa.

During the twelve days that elapse between Christmas and
Epiphany the Vlachs believe that the mysterious beings called
Karkandzal'i or Karkalanzd wander about the earth from
dark till cockcrow. They especially haunt the springs and
defile the water, and it is very dangerous to meet them. They
are finally driven away by the blessing of the waters at Epi-
phany. Between the Day of St Basil, New Year's Day, and

138 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

Epiphany a curious mumming performance takes place which
is well known throughout Thessaly, Macedonia and Thrace.
The object of this mumming is to drive away KarkandzaVi.
Who these mysterious beings are no one can tell, they appear
in Greek folklore wherever there are Greeks, Turks believe in
them and so do the Vlachs, but we have not yet information
as to whether they appear in Bulgarian folklore. The name
varies between Kallikandzaros and Karkandzalu and every
place which believes in them has some different form. Their
origin and the meaning of the name are equally obscure and
the recent ingenious attempt to trace their ancestry to the
Centaurs does not seem satisfactory. The Samariniats call the
mummers Ligutshari and the young men delight to make up
such bands. In other times they would make up the band on
New Year's Day and after performing in their own village
spend the days before Epiphany in wandering round other
villages in the neighbourhood always returning home for
Epiphany. It sometimes happened that two bands met on
the road and then there was a struggle to see which was the
better. Neither would wish to yield except to force, for the
weaker band had to salute the leader of the stronger. Thus it
has been known to end in bloodshed, so they say, and near
Verria they will point out places in the hills called La Ligutshari
where a struggle between two bands ended in some one being
killed. A band may consist of any number up to twenty, but
there are really only seven essential characters, the bride, the
bridegroom, the old woman who nurses a puppet in her arms
pretending it is her child, the old man or Arab, the doctor and
two men dressed in skins to represent bears or sheep or wolves
or devils. These latter characters always have masks of skin
and wear on their heads a piece of board in which is inserted a
kind of plume made of the tail of a fox, wolf or goat. They are
always heavily loaded with rows and rows of mule and sheep
bells to make more impression when they dance. The Arab
too usually wears a similar costume. If more than seven
people compose a band, the extra persons will duplicate other
characters such as the bride and bridegroom, of whom there
can be any number up to six, and the devils or bears, or they

FESTIVALS AND FOLKLORE 139

may introduce fresh characters such as the doctor's wife or a
priest. The brides are invariably ^^oung men dressed in girls'
clothes, and no women ever take part in such mumming ; it
would be improper. The plot of the play which the mummers
performed was very simple. The Arab or old man would
annoy the bride with his attentions. The bridegroom would
naturally intervene and a lively quarrel would ensue, which
ended eventually in the death of one of them. He was duly
mourned either by the bride or by the old woman and the
doctor was called in. Through the doctor's skill the dead was
restored to life and the play ended with a general dance of all
the characters and the sending round of the hat. In other days
the play seems to have included something in the nature of an
obscene pantomime, of which traces still survive. Nowadays
the play varies much from place to place, for instance at times
the Arab will attempt to steal the old woman's puppet baby
and this provokes the bridegroom's interference. The mum-
ming used to begin after church on New Year's Day, but now
in some places it is done only at Epiphany. The Greeks of
Pelion have transferred the festival to May Day, the Thracian
mumming among Greeks and Bulgarians alike occurs at the
beginning of Lent, and within the memory of man the bishop
of Ghrevena has forbidden the Vlachs of that town to do their
mumming at the New Year and compelled them to transfer it
to Carnival. Wherever there are Vlachs the custom is known.
It still flourishes in the glens of Pindus at Turia and Baieasa
and at Briaza where they call the mummers Arugutshari.
They are known by this name at Klisura, at Neveska as
Ishk'inari and at Krushevo as Arak'i. In the Meglen at
L'umnitsa and Oshini they appear as Dzhamalari. The
Samariniats at Verria, Elassona and Vlakhoyianni still observe
the custom. At Verria where we have seen it on New Year's Day,
it is much curtailed, for only one character appears, the Arab
masked and dressed in skins and loaded with bells (Plate I).
Boys in groups of four or five will don this dress and wander
about the town from quarter to quarter where the Vlachs
dwell. They waylay any one they meet and demand money to
drink his health and wish him good luck for the year. Each

140 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

member of the band carries a large knife of some kind and they
threaten the victim's Hfe till he pays. At Elassona Vlachs
and Greeks unite in the mumming (Plate XXI), but the former
seem to be in the majority, and all the usual characters appear
though the Arab here is an Albanian armed with a blunderbuss
to shoot the bridegroom with ashes and the typical two-
stringed Albanian guitar. Similarly wherever there are Greeks
in Thrace and Macedonia the custom is still observed. We
have heard of it at Stenimachos in East Bulgaria and in Adrian-
ople, at Boghatsko near Kastoria and throughout Thessaly.
From the obvious similarity between this mumming and some
of the ancient Dionysiac rites some would hail this as a Hel-
lenic custom come down from remote antiquity. However
since in Greece itself it is not known anywhere south of
Thessaly, but only in regions where Greeks live side by side
with other races, the Hellenic origin does not seem proved.
All that we can say is that it seems common to all the races in
the centre of the Balkan peninsula for the Bulgars and Al-
banians too know it, but we cannot on the present evidence
decide which race had the honour of inventing it., It is re-
markable that belief in the Kallikandzari is universal in Greece,
but the mumming in their honour is not. As for its supposed
Dionysiac connection that still remains to be proved, and after
all even Dionysus himself was not in origin a Hellene, but a
stranger from the north. The mumming apparently reached
its height on the eve of Epiphany when the bands would visit
the houses after dark and levy contributions on the occupier
willy-nilly. On such occasions they seem to have had full
licence to steal chickens and any similar trifles they could
lay their hands on. Then on the day of Epiphany after the
usual Orthodox service of blessing the waters the bands re-
appeared to take toll from all who had eluded them before.
Sometimes the bands collect money for the church of their
parish, but as a rule the contributions they levy are spent for
their own pleasure. The last possible day for them to linger
is the feast of St John the Baptist which immediately follows
Epiphany, but by then their services are no longer required,
for KarkandzaVi flee as soon as the waters are blessed. To

PLATE X.XI

FESTIVALS AND FOLKLORE 141

prevent any chance of harm from any Karkandza who may
have remained the wise Samariniat housewife will take the
ashes that she has been collecting on her hearth ever since
Christmas and sprinkle them all round her house outside,
which will effectively drive away KarkandzaVi who are left.
After Epiphany there are no great festivals till Easter, or
at least such festivals as occur are not particularly Vlach.
Pious craftsmen for the sake of a holiday will in January duly
keep the days of St Antony and St Athanasius. The latter
day is for some Vlachs an important festival as marking the
middle of winter. In some of the Meglen villages one or two
oxen are killed at the church and the meat boiled. Each
house sends a boy for a dish of the meat, paying money for it
which goes to the church. All Vlachs who are Greeks in
politics will duly observe Lady Day because that is now the
national festival of Greece. Lent and Easter they keep as all
orthodox christians, and their observances do not differ from
those of the Greeks. But Easter since it is a moveable feast
cannot be depended on by the nomad Vlachs, for they may
have to spend it on the road. No true Vlach would put off
attending the fair of Ghrevena merely because he wanted to
spend Easter in his winter quarters in some town, and they say
that Easter was spent on the road in 1854 when the Samarina
families were attacked by Turkish troops while in camp. Only
for the day of Lazarus, the Saturday before Palm Sunday, have
the Vlachs any peculiar observances. On this day the young
girls collect in groups of five or more (they call themselves
Lazarine), and make a doll representing a boy. One of them
is chosen as leader to carry the doll, and then decorated with
flowers they wander from house to house singing songs either
in Vlach or Greek. Sometim.es tv/o of them, either girls or
boys, unite to carry the doll, and this seems to be done to
avoid the possibility that the people, they visit, should make
jokes at the expense of the girl carrying the boy doll. On the
last day of February the boys run about the streets with bells
in their hands and cry, " Away mice, away snakes ! " This
custom however is observed amongst many peoples at this
time of the year.

142 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

After Easter come the feast of St George, which is a great
day for the Vlachs, for then the shepherds break up their
winter camps and move off to their native hills, Ascension Day
and the feast of the Trinity which are kept as feasts of the
church. At Whitsuntide they keep the feast of the dead which
they call Rusal'e. On these days they decorate the graves
with flowers and take to the churchyard dishes of collyva and
other food which are blessed by the priest after which they are
distributed amongst those present. This is done, as the old
women say, that the dead may eat and also for the repose of
their souls. The custom is known in Greece and elsewhere,
and it is interesting that the Greeks too keep the Rusalia,
which like the Vlach is derived from the Latin rosalia.

The Vlachs are faithful sons of the Orthodox Church and
very religious, if to be religious is to observe the superstitions
which the church encourages. We have seen the famous
miracle working ikon of the monastery of Zaburdo brought up
to Samarina by pious muleteers to cure a dangerous infectious
disease, which was attacking the mules of the village. At
Elassona in the middle of January the famous ikon of the
Virgin is brought down in solemn procession from its mon-
astery on the hill above (Plate XX 2) to the church in the
centre of the Vlach quarter mainly inhabited by Samariniats.
After the service a spirited auction is conducted in the church
for the honour of keeping the ikon for a night in one's house.
The bids are made in oil to be given to the monastery. The
first bid is made by the priest who as he comes down the
steps from the altar at the close of the service shouts out
" Thirty okes of oil for the ikon ! " which indicates the reserve
price. On the occasion when we saw the auction the ikon
was secured by a syndicate of Samarina muleteers, who com-
bined to bid a hundred and twenty okes of oil, and carried off
the ikon in triumph. Naturally the entertainment of this
miraculous ikon attributed to St Luke brings the best possible
luck for the successful bidders.

Other examples of superstitions common among the
Vlachs and known at Samarina are the belief that every deep
glen or ravine is the home of demons or devils who delight to

FESTIVALS AND FOLKLORE 143

leap about the rocks, and the idea that springs are the homes
of beings called Alhile shi Mushatile, the Fair and Beautiful
Maidens. These mysterious maidens live in small springs
especially those closely surrounded by bushes or overgrown
with ivy. As they are naturally jealous of any pretty girl
it is wise to leave by the springs where they live a piece of
money or a rag torn off a garment and tied on to one of the
bushes. If any girl or boy is ill, it is due to the jealousy of
these beings. Then the relations with white aprons and
white kerchiefs on their heads on which they carry loaves of
bread and with a sprig of basil in their hands will go early in
the morning to the nearest spring where Alhile shi Mushatile
dwell. The springs are usually a little way outside the village.
They cut the bread and sing a song like the following : —

Fair and Beautiful Maidens have pity on us. What you have
given us, do not take from us. \\Tiat you have taken from us, give
us back.

On one occasion an old woman of Samarina hearing
that we were in search of antiquities said, " I suppose they
must have candles of human fat." Her belief was, that, if
one had such a candle and lighted it, either the light would
guide us straight to what we were seeking, or else the an-
tiquities would spring up from the ground automatically.
Another time during a thunderstorm on the mountains we
were directed to sit under a special kind of pine where we
should be sheltered from the rain and safe from the lightning.
Pines of this kind have a small cruciform branch on their tops
and so no lightning will ever strike them. The pine on the
roof of Great St Mary's was once cut down by an impious
priest ; but the next morning the priest was found dead in
his bed and the tree was back in its old position where it
flourishes to this day.

The Vlach folk-beliefs are endless and as will be seen from
the examples that have come under our notice are of mixed
origin and it is impossible to say how many are genuinely
Vlach.

CHAPTER VIII
THE HISTORY OF SAMARINA

Shi eara tsi nu shi eara.

And there was what was not.

Preface to Vlach Folktale

SAMARINA from its position in Pindus on the borders
of Upper Macedonia and Southeastern Albania is
Uttle hkely to be visited by European travellers
unless they go there with some set purpose. Further the
fact that it lies just off the main road from Ghrevena to
Konitsa helps to keep it in obscurity, and even this road is
not often used by European travellers who usually cross the
chain of Pindus by Metsovo or by Kortsha (in Greek Koritsa,
in Vlach Kortsheaua). Leake and Pouqueville, our earliest
authorities, mention the village, but never visited it. Since
their time the only European who has been there and given
any account of it is Weigand. The Italian botanist Baldacci
was in the district in 1896, but not in Samarina itself. Apart
from these the only European who has been there recently
according to the accounts given us in Samarina was a German,
who stayed one night when travelling through from Albania
back to Salonica. The villagers are never tired of telling
how geologists have been there to look at the mines reported
to exist on Zmolku, but do not know their names. The mere
fact that none of the earlier European travellers ever passed
anywhere near the village means that for its history before
the time of Leake we are entirely dependent on local tradition.
Even for the various events connected with Samarina in the
nineteenth century the main source of information is oral
tradition again. There are however a few scattered refer-
ences to Samarina in some modern Greek books. From the

THE HISTORY OF SAMARINA 145

statements of the travellers and the modern Greek references
we have been able to obtain a few points the dates of which
can be fixed approximately. On to this skeleton we have
attempted in the following history of the village to fit what
we have learnt from various natives of Samarina. The
result can make no claim to be accurate, for the local tradi-
tions are often very inconsistent. Perhaps the history of
Samarina makes up for its lack of accuracy by picturesqueness
and the fact that it is probably typical of what the Vlach
villages went through in Turkish times.

All the local traditions agree in saying that the village was
not always where it is now. Formerly there were three or
four little hamlets which in the course of time coalesced
into Samarina. But exactly where these hamlets were no
one quite knows, but all are quite sure that one was at the
monastery of Samarina. This was not a healthy site and
the inhabitants had to migrate elsewhere, because the place
was full of snakes which bit the children. Another settlement
is said to have been at a place called La Palita about ten
minutes to the south of Samarina on the road to the monastery.
Here the slope of the hill is gentler than elsewhere and covered
with grass and dotted with pear trees, so that it seems quite
possible that it was once inhabited. Another hamlet is said
to have been on the ridge opposite Samarina, but opinions
differ as to where it was. One would place it at the Tshuka a
rocky bluff below the Ghrevena road and near the K'atraN'agra ;
another would put it by a spring called the Fandana al Ahuri
(the spring of Ahuri) higher up on the same ridge above the
Ghrevena road ; and yet a third would place it at the Shoput
al Kodru further along the ridge on the road to TshotiH. The
tale is that Ahuri was a shepherd and wished to build the
village by his spring. A hot dispute took place between him
and other shepherds who wanted to build the village by the
willows in what is now the misohori and a fight ended in his
being killed there by his spring. The most likely of these
three sites is the Tshuka where there are disused threshing floors
and other signs of cultivation to say nothing of a large number
of pear trees. Another hamlet stood somewhere on the
10

146 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

present site of the village, probably near the site of Great
St Mary's Church. To these settlements others will add one
supposed to have existed on the slopes of GurguFu above
the woods of K'urista at a spot called La Koasta. This hardly
seems likely in view of the roughness of the ground and the
height of the mountain. No permanent settlement can have
existed here, though it is quite likely that shepherds camped
here for the summer. Probably the tradition that one of
the original hamlets stood on Gurgul'u is due to a confusion
with the tale that the ridge of GurguFu was used as a refuge
by the people of Samarina during Albanian raids. At all
events it does not much matter where these isolated hamlets
were, it is enough that there is a consensus of local tradition
that Samarina first came into being through their union.

Four f amihes are said to have taken the initiative as regards
the foundation of the village. These were the families, Honia,
Dadal'ari, Nikuta and Barbaramu. Of these the Dadal'ari
family is still well known in the village, but for a widely different
reason. Once upon a time this clan was rich and powerful,
but latterly through the decline of the sheep-rearing industry
has fallen on evil days. It is now a bye-word for pride and
poverty. As a rule every bachelor from elsewhere, who visits
Samarina, is advised to take a wife from the village, and he, if
he be well posted in the local traditions, will admit that he is
willing, but that he would prefer as his bride one of the daughters
of Dadal'ari. Any stranger who makes such a remark will
at once achieve a great reputation as a wit, in Samarina at
least. The heads of these families are said to have been
tshelnikadzi, head shepherds, and it is highly probable that
the scattered settlements, which were united to found the
village, were not permanent hamlets, but merely the hut
encampments of large groups of shepherds, who return year
after year to encamp in the same spot for the summer among
their native hills. Nowadays such camps are small, but in
earlier times they were of a patriarchal character. In addition
to his own family the Tshelniku had under his control many
shepherds who watched his flocks and their families as well.
Thus in the flourishing days of the Vlach pastoral life as many

THE HISTORY OF SAMARINA 147

as fifty families might be united under the leadership of one
Tshelniku. Some local authorities assert that the founding
of Samarina took place in the fifteenth century, others more
wisely profess complete ignorance on this point. Although
it is probably true that Vlach shepherds were camping for
the summer round about the present site of Samarina in the
fifteenth century and for many a long year before then, yet it
seems to us that in placing the foundation of the village in
the fifteenth century, tradition is giving a date at least a
century too early. After the first permanent settlement other
families came from time to time and so increased the size
of the village. In the sixteenth century the families Hutsha,
Tsan'ara, and Hoti or Karadashu settled in Samarina and in
the seventeenth century they were followed by the family of
Hadzhimati. These are the facts that local tradition loves
to retail, and it is impossible to check them. To follow back
for any period of years the history of any one of the families
of Samarina with their ever-changing surnames and continual
inconsistencies is beyond the patience of any ordinary mortal.
From the time of its foundation till the end of the eighteenth
century when we have the first written records of the village
and its inhabitants, Samarina was increasing in size and pro-
sperity. The accounts given by Leake and Pouqueville indi-
cate that it was then in a flourishing condition, and we know
from the inscriptions given above that about this time the
churches were built.

Probably the wealth and prosperity of the village attracted
the attention of the Albanians. As noted by Leake in South-
eastern Albania the Albanians have for a long time past been
encroaching on the neighbouring peoples, whether Greek,
Vlach or Bulgarian. At the same time they were continually
raiding beyond the limits of the lands in which they were
settling. For instance the Greek districts of Poghoni and
the Zaghori suffered severely. Prominent amongst these
raiders were the people of Tepeleni, the home of Ali Pasha,
and Kolonia the wild hill country lying between Konitsa and
Kortsha. It is said that during the eighteenth and early
nineteenth century Albanians from the districts mentioned

148 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

were continually attempting to plunder Samarina. How-
ever the boast of Samarina is that it has never been robbed
by Albanians, although they admit that on one occasion the
whole population went up and camped on Gurguru. There
the women and children were placed in safety on the peak
and the men lying behind hastily constructed breastworks of
stones successfully defended the honour of Samarina. Local
pride apparently overlooks the fact that if the whole popula-
tion were on the heights of Gurgul'u the village must have
been at the mercy of the Albanians who could have plundered
it unhindered. It is in connection with these raids that we
hear of the first hero of Samarina. The great defender and
leader of the village against the Albanians was one Yanni al
Preftu. In 1743 he is believed to have chased home to Tepeleni
from Samarina and Kerasova Veli Pasha the father of All
Pasha, the Lion of Yannina. So great was the terror which
he caused among the Albanians that even to-day, so Samarina
boasts, Albanian mothers quiet their naughty children by
saying that Yanni Prift is coming. In this respect Yanni
al Preftu can be ranked with heroes like Hannibal, Richard
Coeur de Lion, and Napoleon whose names are used to stop
babies crying. On one occasion he led out the men of
Samarina, and met and defeated Arslan Bey of Kolonia who
was coming with innumerable Albanians to set his foot on the
village, as the local phrase goes. Aravandinos says that
he attacked a band of Albanians returning from the south
with the plunder of Thessaly, and robbed them of most of
their booty. Possibly, like Totskas, he harried Albanians on
their way home after subduing the Peloponnesian revolt of
1770, Yanni al Preftu, who is said to have belonged to the
great house of Dadal'ari, fell fighting as befitted so valiant a
man. The accounts of his death vary. Some believe that
he was basely deserted and left alone to fight against hopeless
odds by three men of Samarina who were jealous of his renown.
The three traitors are said to have been Nak'i al Kosa,
Dzima al Nikuta and Dzima al Kututringa. Others
say that the Albanians treacherously attacked and killed
him and this is the account that is celebrated in the local

THE HISTORY OF SAMARINA 149

ballad. The version of this which we were told in the village
runs thus : — ■

" \\1iat are these banners that come from the ridge of Grekhi ? "
And Yiannis smiled, he tosses his head, " My girdle holds my sword,
it holds my musket too." And he mounts the slope like a splendid
pigeon, and his mother near at hand shouts to him and wails, "Where
are you going Yianni all alone, with no one at your side ? " " WTiy
do I want many men, I go alone." He begins to cry aloud like a
stallion. " Where are you going Albanian dogs ; and you, men of
Kolonia ? I am Yiannis the priest's son, Yiannis the son of priest
Nikolas. This is not Ghrevena, this is not the Zaghori, this is not
Laista and all the Vlach villages. Here are mountain heights, the
heights of Samarina, where boys and women and girls know how to fight."

The published versions which differ slightly in that
they specify the place of his death, Hassan Kopatsi a spring
on the road from the top of the Greklu ridge to Kerasova,
add three lines at the end emphasising the fact that he fell
by treachery : —

He did not finish his speech, and he groans hea\aly. The fatal lead
comes through his shoulder. They slew the Captain Yiannakis by
treachery.

About this same time, 1775, an Albanian called Ismail
Dhamsis is said to have been warden of the roads of Furka
and Samarina. He seems to have been very energetic,
and was in consequence waylaid and murdered by brigands
at a place called Skurdzha in Samarina territory on the top
of the ridge to the east of H'ilimodhi. This place is not far
from the pass known as La Lupii Spindzuratii (the Hanged
Wolf) on the road from Dusko to Furka. His death is cele-
brated in the following song : —

Were you not content, Ismail Agha, with Furka and with Sama-
rina ? Yet you were anxious to have Dusko as armatolik as well,
and evil induced them to lay an ambush for you. " Ismail, throw down
your arms, Ismail surrender ! " " Am I to throw down my arms, am
I to submit ? I am Ismail Agha, the whole world fears me." They
fire one volley and he remained on the ground. Albania wept for
him, wept for Dhamsis.

At this time too according to the tradition there were
coiners at Samarina who practised their trade at a place called

1,50 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

La Kazani (the Cauldrons) on Zmolku above the Vale Kama.
The spot is well known and it is said that the ruins of the
factory can still be seen and that false money is often found
about there. One of the coiners was the father of Adham
Tshutra, the tshelniku who was the principal subscriber
towards the cost of the wall paintings in Great St Mary's.
When he was denounced to the authorities and the Turks
came to arrest him, he hid under a large pile of unworked
wool lying in his house and so escaped. One of the klephtic
ballads relates to Miha of Samarina who is said to have been
a companion in arms of Yanni al Preftii. Miha denounced
to the authorities as a coiner one Itrizis who is said to have
been a native of Samarina. Itrizis was sent to Constantinople
and remained a long time there in prison. On his release he
avenged himself as told in the song and then went into Thessaly
and joined Vlakhavas. The date according to Aravandinos
is 1785. It hardly seems probable that a native of Samarina
should have been called Itrizis, which seems far more likely
to have been an Albanian name. The ballad tells the story
thus : —

Mikhos was going down from Samarina with his musket at his
side, with his sword in his girdle, to go to his winter quarters, to Sikia
and to Pertori. A bird went and sat on his right shoulder, and it did
not speak like a bird nor like a swallow, but it spoke and talked the
speech of man. " Mikho, tread that path, pass along it, and another
time you will not tread it nor will you pass along it." He lowered his
eyes and tears came into them. " My little bird, whore did you
learn this, where did you hear this, my bird ? " " Yesterday I was in
heaven with the angels and I heard them number you with the dead."
He did not finish his speech, his speech was not complete, a volley was
heard in the midst of the ravine. Itrizis was lying in ambush for him
high up in the pass ; Mikhos of Samarina fell down dead on the earth,
he who was armatole at Furka and klepht at Samarina.

There are frequent references to Samarina and its in-
habitants during the rule of Ali Pasha in Yannina from 1788
to 1822. He was supreme in Epirus, Southern Albania,
Thessaly, and Southwestern Macedonia, and consequently
the great majority of the Vlachs fell within his sphere. Two
natives of Samarina are said to have been in his service as

THE HISTORY OF SAMARINA 151

secretaries — he used Greek as his official language — and their
names are given as Zhogu al Lala al Hadzhik'iriu and Miha
al K'irianu. They seem to have made good use of their
opportunities. They say that a Greek of Vradheto, loannis
Tsigharas, and his three cousins from Tshepelovo returned to
their native land from Wallachia with money which they had
made abroad. They were denounced to Ali Pasha by these
two men of Samarina who alleged that they had robbed their
caravan. The four Greeks were thrown into prison and
condemned to death. They were rescued by a relation of
theirs, loannis Kapas, but lost all their money, and were
obliged immediately to go back to Wallachia to make more.
Another native of Samarina called Adham is said to have served
as mudir of Dhomeniko under Ali Pasha. He died suddenly
and it is believed that he was poisoned, of course by the Turks
to whom the christians attribute all the evil that takes place
in the Balkans. Ali Pasha is also reported to have attempted
to abduct a girl from Samarina, but tradition is not sure whether
he wished her for his own bride or for some one else. The
name and parentage of the girl also differ. Some will say
he was enamoured of a girl of the family of Hadzhik'iriu who
was hurriedly married to Adham Tshutra. Others say that
he attempted to abduct a girl called Haidha of the great house
of Dadarari in order to send her to Napoleon for his bride.
Yanni al Preftii is believed to have rescued the girl from
having this greatness thrust upon her. In any case Samarina
and the neighbouring villages of Avdhela and Perivoli boast
that they always stoutly resisted all attempts of Ali Pasha
to encroach on their liberties. He was notorious for reducing
villages of peasant proprietors to the status of chiftliks and so
obtaining all the produce of the village, the inhabitants of
which were thus little better than serfs. It was under his rule
that Samarina obtained possession of the chiftlik of H'ilimodhi,
which is said to have been a Bulgarian village of peasant
small-holders. It happened that a man of Samarina was killed
at H'ilimodhi and his fellow-countrymen applied for redress
to Ali Pasha, who answered that they could do as they liked.
Consequently the men of Samarina descended in force upon

152 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

H'ilimodhi, drove out the Bulgarians, and annexed the village
and its lands to Samarina. Local tradition says that Ali
Pasha especially favoured Samarina, and many families assert
that they possessed rescripts issued by him till recently. Most
of these are said to have perished when Leonidha burnt some
of the best houses ; at all events we have never been shown any
such rescript. To-day on a rock in the grove of pines on the
slope of the bluff, where stands the church of St Elijah, the
following inscription is to be read : —

1821
AHO AM
UA6IA

What this means it is hard to say. Barth found in the
Elassona district the words " Ali Pasha 1823 " in Greek on
a small fort at Selos, which although a chiftlik did not belong
to him. Heuzey however says that he built a small fort at
Selos to guard the pass through Olympus to Katerini. Ali
Pasha was killed in 1822 ; but the inscription may have been
put up later in order to record that the fort was built by him.
Thus the inscription at Samarina may refer to the establish-
ment of an armatolik there by him, or it may have been cut
at a later date and be of no significance whatsoever.

Another native of Samarina, a monk called Demetrius,
fared badly at the hands of Ali Pasha. After the failure of
the insurrection of the armatoli under Vlakhavas in 1808
Demetrius went about Thessaly advising the christians to be
patient and submit. He was denounced as preaching sedition
and brought before Ali Pasha loaded with chains. Pouque-
ville, who is our sole authority for the story and at his best
not a sober historian, says that the following conversation
took place between the tyrant and the monk : —

Ali. You have preached the kingdom of Christ and con-
sequently the fall of our faith and our prince.

Dem. My God reigns from all eternity and for all eternity,
and 1 reverence the masters whom He has given us.

Ali. What is that you carry on your breast ?

Dem. The precious image of His mother.

TPIE HISTORY OF SAMARINA 153

All. I wish to see it.

Dem. It may not be profaned. Order one of my hands to
be cut off and I will give it to you.

Alt. Is it thus that you mislead men's minds : that we
are profaners ? I recognise in this speech the agent of the
bishops who call in the Russians to reduce us to slavery. Name
your accomplices.

Dem. My accomplices are my conscience, and my duty,
which oblige me to console the christians and make them
submissive to your laws.

AH. Say to your laws, christian dog !

Dem. I am proud of that name.

Alt. You carry an image of the Virgin which they say is
valuable ?

Dem. Say rather miraculous. The mother of Our Saviour
is our advocate with her Immortal Son and with God. Her
miracles for us occur daily, and every day I invoke them.

AH. Let us see if she will protect you. Executioners apply
the torture !

Then the executioners threw him down at the feet of
the Pasha who spat in his face. They thrust thorns under
the nails of his hands and feet, they pierced his arms, but
in spite of his pain the only words he uttered were " Lord
have mercy on thy servant ! Queen of heaven pray for
us ! " They placed round his head a string of knuckle-bones
and drew it tight, but it broke without producing a con-
fession from him. Then the tired executioners asked that the
torture be postponed till the morrow. Demetrius was removed
and thrown into a damp cell. The next day they hanged him
head downwards and lit a fire of resinous wood under his head.
Fearing that he might die and so escape them, they released
him and placed him on the ground with planks over him on
which they danced to break his bones. Finally Demetrius,
triumphant over all these tortures, was imprisoned in a wall
only his head being left free. They fed him in order to pro-
long his agony, and he did not die till the tenth day. So
great was the admiration of his firmness under torture that a
Mohammedan of Kastoria even asked to be baptized. For

154 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

this he also afterwards suffered martyrdom. As a matter of
fact after the death of Demetrius Ah Pasha is said to have
stopped the persecution of the christians in Thessaly which
he had begun to revenge himself for the rising of Vlakhavas.

Though on the whole Samarina fared well under Ali Pasha,
yet the troubles in Epirus and the destruction of MuskopoFe
and other flourishing Vlach villages after 1770 had their effect
on Samarina as well. Its population, which then numbered
fifteen thousand souls according to local estimates, began to
scatter and many families wandered forth towards the east to
find new homes away from the storm centre at Yannina. Many
settled at Shatishta ; between one hundred and fifty and two
hundred families are said to have gone to Niausta where their
descendants are almost entirely hellenized ; others settled
in the Pierian plain at Katerini, and others joined their cousins
from Avdhela and Perivoli in the movement to the hills of
Verria which later received larger contingents from the same
villages. This cannot be anything like a complete list of
the places whither families from Samarina wandered, and
probably few towns in Southeastern Macedonia did not receive
a detachment of Pindus Vlachs at the beginning of the
nineteenth century.

The next historical mention of Samarina is in connection
with a certain Yeoryios Dhervenas, a native of the village
of Dherveni near Konitsa, who from 1821 onwards was a
noted robber in the districts of Ghrevena and Konitsa and the
Zaghori. In order to check his raids he was made capitan
of the armatoli of Konitsa and Samarina, but since he still
continued to devote himself to his favourite profession, he
was ambushed and killed. His death which is said to have
occurred in 1826 is celebrated in the following song : —

Three little birds were sitting high np at Radhotovi : from the
evening they wail, and at dawn they say, " Yiorghodhervenas has
gone out on to the mountains of Samarina, he demands taxes, he
demands payment. He starts to write letters, to send them to Konitsa.
To you Suleyman Bey and the headmen ! Send me the taxes, send
me the payment lest I burn the villages and lay them waste." He did
not finish his letter and he hears a volley, twelve bullets pierce him
and he utters no word,

THE HISTORY OF SAMARINA 155

Shortly after this in 1845 we hear that the principal power
at Samarina was in the hands of one man Yannuli al Miha
al Hadzhi, who was apparently recognised by the government
as the headman of the village. He was an active and in-
telligent man, a good speaker and possessed of considerable
wealth and influence. His great faults are said to have been
his love of power and money and his objection to any form of
opposition. He had such authority that his seal or signature
was necessary to legalise documents and deeds relating to the
sale of houses and land. He is said to have used the following
phrase : — 'O r^g ^ayuccpivT^g Yl^ozarug Tioc'/vovX'/ig M/y^ov ^2(iaia}
htd rrjv xoii^orriroc . . . The immediate cause of his fall
was that he attempted to induce the people of Samarina
to raise the standard of revolt, probably about the time of the
Crimean war. He was resisted by Dzhoga al Hadhzik'iria
and Dzhima al Papayeoryi of the house of Tshutra, who taunted
him publicly that he treated Samarina as though it was his
chiftlik. The proposed revolt fell through, and shortly after
Yannuli al Miha was denounced to the Turkish authorities at
Yannina by his enemies who alleged that he had embezzled
money which he had collected on behalf of the state. The
intervention of the Turks secured his complete fall from power
and he died not long afterwards. Then the chief of the op-
position Dzhoga al Hadzhik^iria became the principal man in
Samarina with the assistance of Dzhima al Papayeoryi.

In 1854 the Crimean war broke out and this event naturally
affected Samarina. The Greeks taking advantage of the em-
barrassments of the Ottoman Empire brought about a rising
in Thessaly, Epirus and Southern Macedonia. Few natives
of these regions actually joined the insurgents except brigands,
and the revolutionary bands were mainly composed of volun-
teers from Greece including men who deserted from the army
for the purpose and gaolbirds liberated especially with this
object. Many of the volunteers were true patriots, natives
of the country who were living in Greece, and other Greeks
from all Greek-speaking lands. But on the whole the conduct
of the insurgents towards the christian population of the
country they wished to free was disgraceful and they plundered

156 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

right and left. Large numbers of cattle and sheep were seized
and driven down into Greece where meat was cheaper than it
had ever been before as Finlay bears witness. The Moham-
medans were robbed as well, but since the christians far and
away outnumber the Turks in the region concerned they
naturally suffered most loss, especially since one way to hurt
a rich bey was to plunder his chiftliks which would be
inhabited by christians alone. Amongst those who lost
heavily were the shepherds of Samarina, and this was one
circumstance which gave the prosperity of the village a severe
check. Further in the spring or early summer — May 20th 1854
is said to have been the day — when the families were on their
way up to Samarina going by the usual route through Dhiskata
they were attacked in camp by Turkish troops and suffered
severely. Exactly how this came about is not clear, but as
far as we can gather from some of those present it occurred
in the following manner. The insurgent movement was in
progress and a large band under the leadership of Zhakas was
in the neighbourhood of Ghrevena. He had told the families
not to move till he could come and protect them on their way
up to the hills. They however had gone on by themselves and
were in camp one evening not very far from Dhiminitsa when
Mehmed Agha of Ghrevena appeared with an escort of Kurdish
cavalry and demanded the dues payable on the sheep, four
piastres a head. The men of Samarina protested that they
had no money to pay with then because it was the beginning of
the season, but they would pay in the autumn. One old man,
Hadzhiziku by name, encouraged them to resist Mehmed
Agha's demands by force if necessary, and he suspecting that
they were taking up the attitude of insurgents, which was
partly true, ordered his troops to charge. The Kurds accord-
ingly rushed the encampment killing and plundering, and the
Samarina people fled in terror to the shelter of the trees where
they were comparatively safe from the cavalry. They also
resisted, as they could, for some of them had arms, and one
Yanni al Taha is said to have killed the leader of the troops
and so checked their attack. About eighty people are said
to have been killed and among them Hadzhiziku himself.

THE HISTORY OF SAMARINA 157

The rest of the folk were saved by the trees and nightfall.
The next day Zhakas came up with his band about three
hundred strong and a slight engagement took place between
him and the Turks in which he lost a few men. On this occasion
the women of Samarina put white kerchiefs on their heads and
shouldered poles, so that the Turks at a distance might take
them for armed men and not attack. Mehmed Agha retired
to Ghrevena and the families under the escort of Zhakas
reached their villages without any further adventures. After
this Zhakas was pursued by Turkish troops and besieged by
them in the monastery at Spileo where the caves in the cliffs
have always been the traditional refuge for outlaws. He
succeeded in breaking out of Spileo and made his way to
Kalabaka where he united with Ghrivas who had been driven
from Metsovo. They and other insurgent bands were finally
routed by the Turks on June 17th 1854 ^-t Kalabaka. In
subduing the insurrection the Ottoman government employed
as usual Albanian irregulars who were attracted by the prospects
of plunder. On their way home some of these irregulars
under the command of Mudum Bey of Trikkala wished to pass
through Samarina territory and camp for one night in the
village. Yanni al Taha at the head of the men of Samarina
met them at the Doaua K'etri and offered them meat and bread,
but refused to allow them to pass through the village. Accord-
ing to another account the people of Samarina waylaid some
Albanians at the Lupii Spindzuratu and robbed them of most
of their booty, but this seems to us an imaginative version
inspired by the memories of past history. To this period
the follo^ving song probably refers. The man who told us
the song said it was an old song, but he did not know its date ;
others said that its hero flourished under Ali Pasha ; and
others again that the events related took place in 1854.

What is the evil that takes place this week ? My blood brothers,
the dogs, have deceived me, have betrayed me, and they said to me,
" Come, Dhuka, come up to Samarina, that we may become blood
brothers on the twelve gospels." He was holding the cross in his
hands, he was kissing the gospels, and patrols entrapped them round
about the monastery. Listen, they summon Dhukas ! Listen, they
call to Dhukas ! " Come out, come out, Dhuka, come out and submit ! "

158 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

" I am not a bride to submit, and to kiss hands. I am the famous
Dhukas, famous throughout the world : the Sultan knows me and the
Grand Vizier knows me too."

Dhukas was a well-known brigand, and this song refers to his
betrayal and death. Some of his friends invited him to come
to the monastery of Samarina that they might there go through
the ceremony of blood brotherhood. He came, but they had
given information to the Turkish troops who came and sur-
rounded it while Dhukas and his friends were swearing brother-
hood. When summoned to surrender Dhukas refused and
escaped from the monastery, probably by the cellar-like room
under the exo-narthex of its church. He ran down to the
river, crossed it and was making his way up the slope of
Ghumara opposite. The troops pursued and shot him on the
top of the ridge opposite to the monastery, which in conse-
quence is still known as La Dhuka.

In 1856 when peace reigned again party strife broke out
once more at Samarina. Dzhoga al Hadzhik'iria who as leader
of the opposition had succeeded to the power and place of
Yannuli al Miha began in the course of time to abuse his
authority very much as his predecessor had done, and to act in
the same high-handed manner. He quarrelled with Dzhima al
Papayeoryi by sending the mukhtars and a gendarme to the
house of Miha Dzhima's brother, then a newly married young
man, to arrest him for failing to pay a debt which he was
alleged to have owed to the state. The Turkish authorities
at Yannina were appealed to by both sides, for the opposition
now asserted that Dzhoga al Hadzhik'iria had embezzled the
proceeds of some taxes he should have collected for the govern-
ment. Miha al Papayeoryi was imprisoned at Ghrevena for
some time, but was liberated by bribery. Then the Vali of
Yannina sent up an officer to Samarina to see which was the
stronger party in the village. All the inhabitants were
summoned by the ringing of the bells to the pade of Great
St Mary's, and the officer put forward Miha to make his
defence to the people. Then he ordered Dzhoga to stand on
one side and Miha on the other and the inhabitants to shew their
preference for one or the other by dividing there and then.

THE HISTORY OF SAMARINA 159

The division shewed that the party of Miha was much the
stronger, and he became in his turn the principal man in the
village, but he never seems to have enjoyed as much power
as had been held by his predecessors. Another version of
these party quarrels says that they were not so much personal
affairs between the leaders, but that a great question of policy
underlay the quarrel. One party, presumably that of Dzhoga,
wished the inhabitants to sell Samarina and its territory
wholesale as a chiftlik and that the folk should then go
and settle elsewhere. This proposal was strenuously resisted
and finally utterly defeated. The beaten party were so un-
popular that they were obliged to withdraw from the village
and seek new homes elsewhere. Consequently they went and
joined those of their fellow-countrymen who had some time
previously begun to make their homes on the hills of Verria,
and others went to Katerini. About a hundred families in all
settled round Verria and about the same number at Katerini.
These are still referred to at Samarina as the beaten party
(bdtutsl). These events took place between 1854 ^^^ i860
according to tradition, which is notoriously uncertain about
dates.

In the years of peace that followed the stirring events of
1854 Samarina seems to have gradually increased in prosperity.
In 1877 the village is said to have numbered twelve hundred
houses and each year many more were being built. The part
of the parish of St Elij ah which is beyond the deep ravine was
then full of houses, and there were many on the slope below
Great St Mary's. On the other side houses stretched along
the road from the village to the bridge on the Ghrevena road
over the stream coming down from the Greklu. They even,
so it is said, talked of building beyond this bridge. Then too
the shepherds were very prosperous, for Samarina possessed
81,000 head of sheep. But the outbreak of the Russo-Turkish
war seriously injured the village, and the political changes that
ensued have had a permanent evil effect on it. As in 1854,
so in 1878, the Greeks stirred up an insurrection in Thessaly,
Epirus and Southern Macedonia, and as before volunteers
from Greece and deserters from the Greek army composed the

i6o THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

bulk of the insurgent forces. But in Thessaly, especially on
Pelion, a large number of natives took up arms and local
brigands joined them in the hope of plunder. The rising,
which except on Pelion and Olympus had little local support,
was soon stamped out by the Turks and the Albanian irregulars
they called in to assist them. In April 1878 the insurrec-
tion, which had begun in January, was brought to an end
mainly through British intervention. Following the established
precedent the insurgents plundered christians and Moham-
medans impartially, and the Samarina shepherds suffered
severe losses. A native of Burbusko has told us that during
the rising he and his companions in arms drove down into
Greece many head of sheep and cattle from the Hashia district
and the country round Elassona and Larissa, which is the very
region where many Vlach shepherds winter. Then after the
rising was over the Albanian irregulars robbed and plundered
with fire and sword in Thessaly and the Elassona district. So
great was the terror caused by these licensed marauders that
ninety-four families wintered in Samarina, preferring to risk
the cold and lack of food in the mountains rather than face the
dangers of the plains.

On the failure of the insurrection the brigands who had
joined it returned to their former occupation and the years that
followed up to 1881 were full of danger for Samarina. Amongst
the brigands who had taken part with the insurgents was a
native of Samarina, Leonidha al Hadzhibira, a member of a
well-known and wealthy family. He had been a brigand since
1875 at first as the lieutenant of Zhurkas and later as an
independent leader. He had gladly taken part in the insurrec-
tion as a means of legalising his own robberies, and because he
was apparently really eager to free the christians of his native
land from the Turkish domination. His compatriots like to
believe that for his services to the Greek cause he was decorated
with the order of the Redeemer. But for many years he was
the terror of the country and his native village suffered heavily
from him, for he invaded it many times and burnt many
houses including some of the best and richest. To this day
the Vlach villages of the Zaghori say that Leonidha and Davelis

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THE HISTORY OF SAMARINA i6i

were the causes of their ruin. The following song refers to one
of his exploits in that region : —

When he was at Baieasa, Ho, Captain Leonidha ! he did a deed of
daring with eleven men. Leonidha in the village, the Turk outside.
He seizes a musket, Ho, Captain Leonidha ! he seizes a musket. O,
for three long hours all the old men shout : " Ho Captain Leonidha, see
that the Turkish braves do not burn our village ! " " Come my lads,
let us depart, let us attack the Turk, let us take him alive, and let us
attack him."

We have heard many accounts of his daring from his
brothers and nephews and from an ex-brigand who served
under him. In the continual skirmishes which he had with
the pursuing detachments of Turkish troops he is said to have
had a charmed life. Some attribute this to the fact that he
carried upon him a piece of the True Cross. He never took
cover, but walked proudly up and down the line of his men,
and encouraged first one and then another, displaying his
person to the Turks just as the Scots displayed theirs to
King Edward i at Berwick. He even did not hesitate to raid
towns where troops were stationed, as is evidenced by his
attack on Hrupishta. His career closed in 1880 in the following
manner. The Turks had arrested his mother and sister and
taken them to Ghrevena where they held them as hostages
hoping that Leonidha would submit. In the meantime the
pursuit of his band continued and at last he was engaged in
a life-and-death struggle on the hills between Blatsa and
Shatishta. In the engagement Leonidha was mortally wounded
and hidden by his men who could not take him with them.
On their retreat he was found by the Turks and after a desperate
resistance in which he cut down several of the enemy, he took
his own life. His head was cut off, taken to Ghrevena and
exposed in the market-place, and then his mother was brought
to identify it. She to the general surprise denied that it was
her son's head in order to hide her grief, but when she returned
to her home she gave way to uncontrollable weeping. Accord-
ing to custom the Turkish authorities sent Leonidha's head
to the Bishop of Ghrevena asking him to bury it. He however
refused on the ground that he could not give christian burial
II

i62 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

to a suicide. His death is celebrated by the following

song : —

I need no mourning mother, I need no dirges. The mountains
mourn for me ; the Vlach villages mourn for me ; night and dawn
mourn for me, the stars and the moon ; the brides of the Hadzhi,
the brides of Hadzhibira mourn for me. They were sitting at the
window and were gently singing. They were asking all the travellers
that passed by, " Perhaps you have seen our gallant son, Leonidhas
himself ? " " Yesterday evening we saw him in the haunts of the
klephts. They had lambs roasted, rams on the spit. They have
slain Leonidhas, the first of the captains, who was the standard of the
mountains and the banner of the klephts."

The Turkish version of the death of Leonidha has been
preserved by Sir Valentine Chirol. After six days' ceaseless
tracking a strong detachment of gendarmerie surrounded him
and his band in their lair and killed them to a man.

In almost every village throughout the country, which they
made their playground, the brigands had some friend or
relation who acted as their guide, philosopher and friend
and supplied them with food and information. This man
who is known as a kulauz (the Turkish qilaghuz guide) would
act as negotiator between the brigands and the authorities
if they wished to submit and obtain a free pardon. On the
other hand, if the authorities were determined to extirpate
the brigands, they would first attempt to arrest every such
kulauz, so that the brigands should have no means of obtaining
food and shelter. The following song relates to the death of
one Dhimitraki al Pazaiiti who acted as kulauz for Leonidha
near Dhiminitsa : —

Have you heard what happens this week ? This week they slew
Dhimitrakis. The poor fellow had gone to the village, high up to
Dhiminitsa to fetch the musicians to go to Leonidhas. On the road
where he was going, on the road where he goes he met three Turks
at the church behind the trees. They give him three shots with their
Martinis, the three in order. One grazes his skin, and tlic second hits
him in the foot, and the third the fatal one takes him in the heart.

Leonidha was not of course the only brigand who infested
Southwestern Macedonia in those times. In October 1880
when some families from Samarina were going down to their

THE HISTORY OF SAMARINA 163

winter quarters near Elassona a dramatic incident took place,
which is recorded in the following song : —

Birds of Ghrevena and nightingales of Komati when you go down
to the Aghrapha and down into Greece, give the news to the klephts
and to all the captains ; they have slain Karadzhas at desert Komati.
He came out in front of the families to lay a tax upon them. He
demanded a heavy tax, a dollar a mule. At first they speak him
fair, so that he may let them go. " Sit down quietly Yiorghaki, sit
down. The wine is drunk. Yesterday that dog Zhurkas stripped us,
he took a hundred pounds and seventy capes." " Well did he treat
you, and how shall I treat you ? " He demanded a heavy tax, a
dollar a mule. When Dili Zisis heard this, he was very angry, and
he seizes an axe, and buries it in his skull. Like a tree he splits, and
like a cypress he falls : black birds wept for him, and white birds
surrounded him.

The incidents to which this song refers are briefly as follows.
One night when in camp on the road between Ghrevena and
Dhiskata the families had been held up by a brigand called
Zhurkas who was the leader of a large band. As the Samarina
families were then on their way to their winter quarters at
the end of the summer season after the fair at Konitsa they
were well off for ready money. Zhurkas took all he could
extract from them and seventy goat's-hair capes as well for
his men. The next morning the families broke camp early as
they were anxious to get through a difficult pass called Skara
(the ladder) leading to Dhiskata, before any other brigands
heard of their whereabouts. They had not gone far when
they were again held up by Yeorghakis Karadzhas, a well-known
and desperate brigand. He had only two men with him. He
and one other came out into the narrow road and held up the
long procession of mules, while the third stopped on the ridge
above as though ready to signal to a large body in hiding.
Karadzhas demanded that they should pay a dollar (accord-
ing to another account five piastres) for each mule. In vain
they entreated him to let them go in peace for Zhurkas
had robbed them only the night before. Then a nmleteer
Zisi al Tshopa who had lost heavily the night before was
seized with ungovernable rage, snatched up an axe and rushed
against Karadzhas who was sitting with his rifle on his knees

i64 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

watching that none should pass without paying. With one
blow he laid Karadzha low, and then backed by several others,
who were fired by his example and snatched up knives and
furtutire and any other weapon that was handy, attacked
Karadzhas' companion Vasili. He attempted to escape, but
was soon overtaken and hacked to pieces. The third who
was watching on the ridge when he saw the fate of his comrades,
made off with all speed. This tale which is actually true gives
an excellent illustration of the state of the country in those
years. It shows the daring impudence of the brigands, and
the patience of the people till goaded to desperation. Karadzhas
is said by some to have been a Kupatshar, by others to have
been a Greek from Greece. A week or ten days before his
death he had held up an earlier caravan of Samarina families
in the Pade Mushata on the Morminde. This we have on the
authority of a man who was present as a boy. He and other
boys as usual when nearing a camping-place were going on
ahead of the families, and running down from the col of Mor-
minde to the Pade Mushata, and with them was a man with
a rifle, to see if all was safe for the families. Suddenly Karadzhas
and his two companions looked out from behind some trees
and ordered hands up. The man was disarmed, bound and
thro\vn into a ravine near by. The boy spectators of the scene
were too frightened to give warning. Then as the families
came down the narrow track in Indian file Karadzhas ordered
them to halt and pay a dollar a mule. Wlien the families at
first refused he left his two men to watch, and went alone
amongst the mules and began cutting the ropes and letting
the loads fall. The families were then obliged to pay : our
informant's family which had seven mules thus paid seven
dollars. The families however too frightened to camp in the
Pade Mushata after this, went down to the khan of Philippei.
There they found a detachment of Turkish troops who imme-
diately went in search of Karadzhas. They surprised him, as
he and his companions were sitting round a fire dividing their
spoil. Though they had no sentinel, yet the three brigands
escaped, but with the loss of all their booty. A few days later
Karadzhas and one of his comrades met their fate in holding up

THE HISTORY OF SAMARINA 165

a second caravan of Samarina families as related. They say
that when Karadzhas was killed he had his pet lamb with him —
the Vlachs in the summer delight in keeping pet lambs (Plate
XI i), which they kill for the festival of the Assumption.
Karadzhas' lamb was captured, killed and eaten by the
triumphant Samariniats.

Another brigand Yeoryios Yioldhasis who haunted the
mountains of Samarina, was caught and shot by the Turks
near the village. His head was brought into Samarina and
hanged on the willow tree in the middle of misohori. His
death, which is alleged to have been brought about by
treachery, is recorded in this local song : —

Three little partridges were sitting on the crest of Zmolku. One
looks at Yannina, and another down towards Konitsa, and the third
the smallest looks at Samarina. Yeoryi get up from there, away with
you high up to the look-out post. The patrols have entrapped us,
they have taken our heads. In front they bring us bread, and behind
is the patrol.

In the summer of 1881 the Turkish government took active
measures against the brigands who were still at large. Eventu-
ally a major called Mukhtar Agha succeeded in inducing most
of them to submit. The principal brigands who agreed to
come in on the promise of a free pardon were Ghushu al Dhispuli,
nicknamed Makriyeni, because his beard reached to his knees,
and his lieutenant Simika, both of Samarina ; Makri of Perivoli,
the brothers Garelia of Briaza, and Gika an Albanian. In all
forty-seven are said to have submitted, and on hearing the
news the commandant of Yannina came up to Samarina with
a large force to receive their formal submission and to issue
the pardons. The events that followed are related in the two
following songs : —

Have you heard what happens this summer ? The klephts and all
the captains have submitted. The treacherous commandant deceived
them and misled them : he said to them, " Come here that I may
give you pardons." And they poor fellows were deceived, and were
shut up in his courtyard. The hour was six or seven about midday.
When Mukhtar Agha heard of it he was very angry.

The three Vlach villages have deceived me and betrayed me,
Avdhela, and Perivoli, and treacherous Samarina. My friends, my
fellow-countrymen, have betrayed me, the dogs, and said to me.

i66 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

" GDme leader, come and submit ! " and they said to me, " Come,
Ghushu, come and submit, submit to the Pasha in the house of Pagatsa.
They took us and they bound us, Albanian dogs ! About evening
they take us along the mountains, at dawn they bring us to Furka,
they take us to Yannina. The Albanian dogs took us and hanged us.

What happened on the coming of the commandant to
Samarina was this. All the brigands who had agreed to
surrender were called into the village and formally submitted.
They were in Samarina three days ; then the commandant
told them to come to his house after midday when the trumpet
sounded. He was stopping in the big house of Pagatsa on
the ridge of Gudrumitsa which has a large courtyard in front
of it (Plate XVI i). He promised that he would then have
their pardons ready so that they could go to their homes.
The trumpet sounded soon after midday when nearly every-
body was taking his midday siesta. Further as it was a
festival, the day of St Elijah, the event was not likely to
attract much notice in the village. When the unarmed
brigands entered the courtyard of the house, troops entered
from the other side, seized and bound them. Then for the
next two days the forty-seven brigands bound were paraded
about Samarina under escort as an object-lesson to the in-
habitants. After that the commandant departed for Yannina
taking the brigands with him. On the way at Furka he shot
three of them, the brothers Garelia, and Gika. The rest were
thrown into prison at Yannina where Makri of Perivoli and
ten others died. After nineteen years the survivors were
released on June 20th 1900 O.S., and came up to Samarina
for the summer. In the autumn they went down into Greece.
Dhispuli now (191 1) serves as watchman at a chiftlik near
Trikkala. His lieutenant Simika came to the Samarina
district in 1903 as a brigand, was sentenced to ten years'
penal servitude in Greece in 1904, and died in prison.

Other brigands of Samarina who flourished at the same
time were Nak'i Pala, Nak'i Katarah'ia, and the three
brothers Shkraku named Dzhima, Yeoryi and Zisi. These three
latter together with Davelis, and the brothers Garelia plundered
the village of Visiani in the Zaghori on April 25th 1881 O.S.,

THE HISTORY OF SAMARINA 167

and took away five mule-loads of booty, and thirteen captives
including a priest and eight women. The damage they did
is said to have amounted to 5500 pounds Turkish. Some of
the exploits of Katarah'ia have been chronicled by Sir Valentine
Chirol. He was one of those who raided Hrupishta : he seems
to have delighted in fiendish cruelty, and was for some time
the terror of Upper Macedonia.

At the congress of Berlin and in the subsequent treaty in
1878 after the close of the Russo-Turkish war it was proposed
that Thessaly and Epirus should be ceded to Greece. The
Porte obstinately refused to hand over the provinces in ques-
tion, and a conference was summoned at Constantinople in
1881 which finally persuaded the Ottoman government to
cede the greater part of Thessaly, and the province of Arta.
In the interval the Vlachs of Pindus disturbed by the proposed
partition of their country sent in a petition to the Great
Powers asking that either less or more territory should be
ceded to Greece, so that whatever happened they would not be
divided between two states. Samarina joined in this petition
which is said to have contained fourteen thousand signatures.
The prospect of the division of the country inhabited in winter
and summer by the people of Samarina was of course a matter
of the greatest moment.

If we consider for a moment the distribution of the
Samarina families in the winter it will easily appear how the
eventual cession of Thessaly to the kingdom of Greece in 1881
affected the fortunes of Samarina. For all those who were
accustomed to winter round about Larissa, Tirnavos, Trik-
kala, Kalabaka and Kardhitsa it meant the erection of a
customs barrier between their winter quarters and their
summer homes. Many decided to settle permanently in the
towns of Thessaly, and become Hellenic subjects. Others,
while still remaining Turkish subjects, were afraid to go up
to Samarina for the summer. The houses of those who no
longer came up for the summer remained tenantless year in
and year out. In course of time the severity of the winters
and the lack of repairs caused many of them to fall into ruin.
Thus we may say that the political events of 1881 coupled

i68 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

with the lack of pubHc safety in Southwest Macedonia pro-
duced what we may call a dispersion of Samarina, from which
it only recently began to recover. At this time many of
the shepherds gave up sheep rearing and took to other trades,
and many others too wandered away in search of work and
never returned to their native village. In 1886 troubles
between Greece and Turkey broke out again and there was
great danger of war. As Samarina was close to the new
frontier, war was likely to affect the village seriously. Con-
sequently most of those who were wintering in Thessaly de-
cided at the suggestion of Zisi al Dzhimuzhoga, the principal
sheep owner of Samarina, not to go up to their home for the
summer, but to stay in Thessaly or go up into the Thessalian
hills. As a result the village was almost deserted that year, and
the next summer too not many families went up for the season.
Like other historical events this was celebrated by a song : —

Firs of Zmolku, pines of Samarina, do not open your buds this
year ; wither up this year. The Vlachs have not appeared to us from
the midst of Greece. Some have gone to the Aghrapha, and some to
Renda, most have gone to Slitshani, none will remain, and some have
stayed in the plains, down in the plains. Curse on the cause, Zisis
Dzhimuzhogas ; he is the cause, he was the reason. He brought misery
on the people and all the Vlach villages. Girls still remain unmarried
and young men betrothed.

The last line refers to a Vlach custom, peculiar to the
nomad villages about which more is said above. As a rule
betrothals take place about the festival of the Assumption,
when most folk are in Samarina, and the weddings take place
the following year at the same time. If the families for any
reason did not come up to their native village for the summer,
no weddings could be celebrated, for the would-be brides and
bridegrooms would be widely separated.

Similarly the war of 1897 between Greece and Turkey
which took place in the spring affected Samarina. Many
families fled southwards before the Turkish advance, and
consequently either went up to Samarina late or else did not
go up at all. This of course only applies to families in the
habit of wintering in Greek territory. One shepherd told us

THE HISTORY OF SAMARINA 169

that when the Turks advanced into Thessaly he retired before
them with his flocks into the hills round Rendina. As the
war was not over by the time he wanted to go up to the moun-
tains for the summer he took his flocks for that season into
the Peloponnese where he pastured on Mt. Khelmos in Achaia.
But as the war was soon over and the Turkish troops were not
followed by Albanian irregulars to the same extent as on
former occasions, the effect of the war on Samarina was slight
compared with the damage wrought by the risings of 1854
and 1878. This war is also recorded by a local song : —

Bitter has the sprnig come upon us, black the summer. Do you
not mourn villages, and hamlets, and provinces ? What is the evil that
happens this summer ? This year there will be war, Greece with Turkey.
It was one Friday evening, Saturday was the day of Lazarus. And the
Turks conquered, they took Thessaly. Edem Pasha came down from
the midst of the Meluna, he awakes at Tirnavos, he lunches in Larissa.
It happened that the day was Easter with the cry of " Christ is risen ! "
He finds the eggs all red, and the rams ready spitted, and he sweeps
the villages as far as Velestinos.

It is said that during the war some Vlachs offered their

services as volunteers to the Turkish authorities, but they

were not accepted. Any native of Samarina who took part

in the war fought on the Greek side. During the negotiations

for peace a petition was presented to the Great Powers asking

that the northern part of Thessaly at least should be given

back to the Ottoman Empire, but this time Samarina had no

concern with such petitions. The bulk of the population of

Samarina, then as now, is in politics Greek. But it is possible

that some adherents of the Roumanian party in the vfllage

signed the petition. In Samarina as in most Vlach villages

there are two political parties the Greeks and the Roumanians,

though all are by nationality Vlachs. In Samarina from time

immemorial the Greek party has been dominant from its close

connection with the church, the language of which is Greek.

Similarly the earliest schools founded in Samarina were those

started under the auspices of the church. Consequently the

natural political tendency of the inhabitants was towards

Greece, and this was greatly strengthened by the cession of

170 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

Thessaly. Samarina was brought nearer the Graeco-Turkish
frontier, and about half the population of the village were
wintering in what became Greek territory. To this must be
added the natural attraction of christian subjects of the
Ottoman Empire towards the nearest christian state.

Although it was not till 1905 that the Sublime Porte
officially recognised the Vlachs as a separate nationality and
thus placed them on an equal footing with the Greeks, Bul-
garians and Servians, the Roumanian community at Samarina
had been recognised by the Turkish provincial authorities in
1895. The Roumanian school in the village was started in
1879 and has continued to exist ever since. When it was
first opened it was exceedingly popular and is said to have
reached an attendance of about two hundred. However
the intervention of the Bishop of Ghrevena in the interests of
Greek soon checked this promising beginning and since then
the numbers attending the Roumanian school do not seem
ever to have exceeded fifty, while the Greek school can count
on two hundred or more. During the years when Greek
bands were sent into Macedonia to destroy the Roumanian
propaganda by burning schools and kilHng schoolmasters,
many of the Roumanian party at Samarina went over to the
Greek side, but no murders occurred in the village as happened
elsewhere. On one occasion after the Avdhela murders in
July 1905 O.S. the Greek band that had committed them pro-
posed to go on to Samarina to kill some of the prominent
Roumanians. A strong detachment of Turkish troops hap-
pened to visit Samarina at the time, and the band could not
enter the village until they had departed. On their eventual
entrance however the Greek party at Samarina took up a
determined attitude and greatly to their lasting credit declared
they would have no killing.

From the proclamation of the Ottoman constitution in
1908 till 1912 Samarina enjoyed peace, and once again com-
menced to grow larger. The improved political conditions
induced many who had not seen their native village for many
a long year to go up again for the summer. One result of
this was that many new houses were built and several ruinous

THE HISTORY OF SAMARINA 171

ones restored. Then too there was a growing movement
visible in the village in favour of families wintering there,
while the fathers and young men v/ent down to work in the
towns of the plains. Emigration to America, which first
began about 1900, was also responsible for an increase in
prosperity. It is said that there are as many as five hundred
young men of Samarina working in America and most of them
send regular remittances home. They go to work for the
most part in the cotton and boot factories in Lowell, Mass.,
and in Manchester and Nashua, N.H. After 1908 the emigra-
tion of the young men was unconsciously encouraged by the
Ottoman constitution under which all christians were liable
to serve in the Turkish army. Consequently the young men
of Samarina would get away to America before the time came
when they were liable to be called up for military service for
the benefit of the Turk.

The events in the Balkans in 1912-13 have of necessity
affected the future of Samarina and what time may bring
forth one cannot tell. But no one who has visited the village
can fail to wish that it may flourish and prosper.

CHAPTER IX
THE VLACH VILLAGES NEAR SAMARINA

Nicrets fiovva an' ra Tpi^iva k\ TvevKa an' tov Mito-o^ov !

Ye Mountains of Ghrevena and Ye Pines of Metsovo !

The Ballad of Zhakas

SAMARINA is the largest and to-day the most flourish-
ing of a group of Vlach villages along the range of
Pindus and a brief account of these will help the
reader to realise the position of the Pindus Vlachs as a whole.
From Samarina to Smiksi the next village to the south on the
eastern slope of the range is a journey of three hours. We
follow the Ghrevena road as far as the Morminde and thence
diverge along the side of Ghumara past the Pade Mushata.
Then after crossing the crest of a small ridge running out at
right angles to the east from the base of Ghumara we descend
into the head of a small valley. Smiksi is a picturesque
village of about a hundred houses and, as it lies in the hollow
at the head of the valley, is not seen till close at hand. It is
less exposed than Samarina and so is reported to be airless
and relaxing, but despite this its inhabitants invariably
winter in the plains about Elassona and Larissa. Smiksi was
not always an entirely nomad village, for as at Samarina some
of the inhabitants once lived there permanently and devoted
themselves to agriculture. They say that lower down in the
valley at a place called Biga, there was once an agricultural
village. The people of this joined with others from elsewhere
and founded Smiksi which was at first rather higher up the
hill side than it is to-day. The small stream by which the
site of Biga lies eventually joins the main river by the khan
of Philippei. It is a wide, grassy valley and the slopes are

THE VLACH VILLAGES NEAR SAMARINA 173

dotted with pines, but there stands alone in the bottom of
the valley one tall pine, which is called the tree of Ayios
Kosmas. They say that when he visited Smiksi the tree was
small and that he blessed it and fastened a wooden cross to
its top. The tree in the years that have passed since then has
grown very tall, but the cross is still there, fastened to its
top, to bear witness to the truth of the tale. The houses in
Smiksi are neatly kept, but small in size except a few which
are as so often happens the product of emigration or successful
brigandage. The village as a whole when compared with its
neighbours is somewhat lacking in character and is over-
shadowed by Samarina and Avdhela, largely through its
small size and consequent lack of any prominent industry.
In one respect however it is to be envied, for it has kept clear
of pohtical quarrels. Vlach is the only spoken language
except in the church, but the dialect contains many Greek
words for the inhabitants nearly all winter in Greek districts.
As to trade it may be said that the people of Smiksi practise the
same as Samarina, but to a less extent ; the two principal
trades are those of shepherd and muleteer. From the village
a difficult track leads over the shoulder of Ghumara to Briaza
and the Aous valley, and another following the eastern side of
the main range of Pindus leads to Avdhela, which is about
two and a half hours away.

If Smiksi tends to be small and featureless, Avdhela is
the reverse and has a definite character of its own. It has
large forests, chiefly of pine and most of its wealth in conse-
quence depends on the trade in timber. Planks from the
Avdhela saw mills are taken down regularly by Vlach mule-
teers to the districts of Ghrevena and Kozhani, and North
Thessaly. The lack of historical documents of any kind and
the vagueness of local tradition makes a detailed history of
the village quite impossible, but the following perhaps may
be taken as including the main points in its development.
Its origin is attributed to several Vlach shepherds who for
the sake of greater security joined their various family camps
into one. No one pretends to know the date when this hap-
pened, but there is a general idea that it was some two hundred

174 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

years ago. The positions occupied by the hut encampments
of the different groups of shepherd f amiUes, before their union
into one village, are still pointed out in the immediate neigh-
bourhood and are known by the following names, Boboania,
Sardhimiu, G'oni, Broti and Guguleka, which are said to
have been those of the original founders. As far as we know
however such family names do not exist in Avdhela to-day.
By the beginning of the nineteenth century the village must
have been of some size, for about that time thanks to Albanian
raids and the government of AH Pasha a group of Avdheliat
shepherd families under the leadership of Badraleksi migrated
to the hills above Verria and settled there. Besides these
other families left their homes in Pindus and settled else-
where and apparently about the same period the practice of
the whole village leaving their home for winter, instead of
only the shepherds and a few families, began to increase.
Lack of safety in the first instance probably induced whole
families to move and the same reason would make many of
them settle more or less permanently in the towns of the plains.
This in fact can be seen to-day, when many brigands are known
to be out the number of families which venture up to their
summer homes is appreciably fewer, and as soon as conditions
become better the number increases and some will begin to
stay in the hills the whole year through. In Macedonia and
Epirus the hills are a refuge and protection against the govern-
ment, but the plains and towns against private and political
brigands. The principal places whither the Avdheliat families
go to winter are Ghrevena, Elassona and Dhamasi, and Tshoti,
Zarkos and Ghrizhano in the Peneus valley between Trikkala
and Larissa. But compared with Samarina and Perivoli the
number of Avdheliat families in Thessaly is small, for most of
the Avdhela emigrants have gone to the hills of Verria. Conse-
quently except for the timber trade the cession of Thessaly to
Greece in 1881 affected Avdhela less than Samarina. Latterly
the political troubles between 1903 and 1908 have done serious
harm to the village, for Avdhela like its colonists in the hills
of Verria is strongly nationalist. In 1905 a party of nation-
alist families on their way from Ghrevena to Avdhela for the

THE VLACH VILLAGES NEAR SAMARINA 175

summer was attacked on the road by Greek bands and, in
spite of a strong escort of Turkish soldiers, was scattered
and plundered, several of the troops and Avdheliats being
killed. Later in the same year a political band from Greece
raided the village, killed some of the nationalist leaders and
fired some of the houses. In the conflagration the principal
church then used by the nationalists was burnt, whether
intentionally is not known for certain. After 1908 when
affairs were for a time quieter many families returned and the
village began to increase, a circumstance which was especially
due to the inflow of money from America, but by 191 1 only
a portion of the destruction wrought by the Greeks had been
repaired.

In appearance Avdhela is a typical Vlach village standing on
the side of a hill, and contains about three hundred and fifty
houses, most of which stand in a small garden. There are
several churches in the village, but none are of any great age
or of any interest except the big church that was burnt. The
oldest is dated to 1751 or perhaps 1721, for the lettering is not
clear, and a slab on the wall of the burnt one records its erec-
tion by Greek masons from Zhupan, There are two schools
in the village, one Greek and one Roumanian, and at the time
of our last visit in 191 1 the latter had by far the best attend-
ance. The boast of Avdhela in recent years has been its great
success in education, for in this point the Roumanian schools
have an advantage over the Greek in using a script which is
of more than strictly local use. Further not so much time
is wasted in teaching ancient history which is the great curse
of nearly all Greek village education.

Not much over an hour from Avdhela is Perivoli, situated
like its neighbour on the slope of Pindus, but in a more exposed
position. In situation, appearance and history the two vil-
lages are very similar. Perivoli according to tradition was
founded some two hundred years ago by the union of three
villages, Bithultsi, Karitsa and Baietan. At first the united
village was not on the site of the modern Perivoli, but lower
down the valley by the monastery of Ayiu Nikola where the
inhabitants cultivated corn fields and vineyards. When the

176 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

village was moved up the hill is apparently not known. Like
Avdhela and Samarina it was formerly more prosperous than
it is now. It suffered from the rule of Ali Pasha, and the
cession of Thessaly made a great difference to it because a large
number of Perivoliats winter in Thessaly. After the cession
of Thessaly in 1881 many of these settled permanently in the
towns, but apparently a little time before this there had been
some emigration from Perivoli. One of the great trades of
the village was that of shepherd and the number of sheep owned
by the village increased enormously up to 1877, so much so
that the pasture land of Perivoli could carry no more sheep.
Then some of the shepherds had to find fresh pasture grounds
for the summer, and in consequence of this a large number of
Perivoli people, who wintered at Toivash and in the plain to
the east of Larissa, started a summer village of their own at
Istok on the hills between Resna and Okhridha. This Toivash-
Istok colony of Perivoli numbers about two hundred families,
and another hundred famihes are settled at Alii Meria and
elsewhere near Ano-Volos. But the great wintering-place
for Perivoli folk is Velestinos and the villages near it such as
Taktalasman, Dedheryianni and Khatsobasi where there
are said to be at least about four hundred families some of
which are permanently settled there. Trikkala, which might
be called the Vlach metropolis, contains about two hundred
Perivoli families and these go for the summer to a place called
Koromilia in the hills above Kalabaka. Thus it will be seen
that the village was once much larger than it is to-day. Tradi-
tion says that the upper part of the village where the ruins
of houses can be seen was thick with habitations which reached
as far as the edge of the pade on the top of the slope above.
This open green which possesses a fine spring of cold water
is the place where the great village dances are held every year
at the festival of Sanda Vineri as the Perivohats usually call
their patron saint. The feature of the village is its misohori
or square which like the pine tree on the church at Samarina
is the envy of its neighbours. It is a wide terrace partly
natural and partly built up on the sloping hill side and on three
sides has shops or houses, the latter tower-like buildings several

THE VLACH VILLAGES NEAR SAMARINA 177

stories high. On the fourth side the ground falls away sharply
and leaves an unbroken view over the lower part of Perivoli
and line after line of wooded hills rising above the valley, at
the head of which the village stands. A few large plane trees
for shade, a spring near at hand and a seat along the terrace
edge make this misohori the obvious centre for Perivoliat
rank and fashion. On an extension of the misohori to the
north-west stands the principal church, at the east end of
which there is another small terrace well shaded with plane
trees and affording good opportunities for quiet talk on hot
days. Beyond the church are the two schools, Greek and
Roumanian which divide the juvenile population of the vil-
lage between them. The territories of Perivoli which exceed
those of any other Pindus village, are mostly covered with
thick forests of pines. Timber and wood cutting coupled with
sheep-rearing are the chief trades, but in recent years emigra-
tion has increased and it is on money made in America that
Perivoli now mainly depends. On the far side of Mount
Ou or Mount Egg, which takes its name from the peculiarly
shaped rock on its summit, is a deep wooded ravine rejoicing
in a trout stream that runs down to join the Aous near Baieasa.
This is the famous Vale Kalda the sure refuge of brigands and
the pride of the whole land of Perivoli. Tradition records
that the metal workings here are those of the Romans who
also fought a battle in this valley in days gone by. That fight-
ing occurred here is probable from the modern reputation of
the valley which affords a short cut across the mountain of
Perivoli and might be of strategic importance, but we know of
no reason for assigning either the fighting or the metal work-
ings to the Romans. The Vale Kalda, which the state of the
country did not allow us to visit, would certainly be worth
investigation, for even if the tales about its history are in-
accurate, its scenery and its trout would repay the traveller.
The costume of Perivoli is the same as at Samarina and the
national dress is more worn than at Avdhela. But the Peri-
voli type is shorter in the skirts, for the tsipune and the kilted
shirt stop above the knees, and the whole costume is less
ornate.
12

178 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

Samarina, Smiksi, Avdhela and Perivoli are the only
villages in Pindus where nearly all the population migrates
each winter to the plains, and for this very reason form a group
by themselves and have many points in common. The effects
of their annual migrations are various. They promote a
wider outlook on life in general in contrast to the utter stagna-
tion normal in remote villages, and they also do much towards
keeping alive a strong local patriotism. On the other hand the
yearly changes are a serious financial drain, for they involve
the upkeep of two houses apart from the expenses of transit ;
but what is lost in cash is perhaps gained in health by a summer
in the hills. The mode of life is affected chiefly in the following
ways. Agriculture is almost impossible and is in consequence
despised. Home comforts to be of any use must be portable
and so an abundance of rugs, blankets, carpets and cushions
is a sign of wealth. Local opinion in valuing the four villages
always places Samarina first, as it is by far the largest having
eight hundred houses to about four hundred at Perivoli.
Though all have good water that of Samarina is the coldest,
and the climate in summer is cooler and so better. Then it has
an annual festival that lasts for a week, it has more pastry-
cooks, it consumes more wine and finally there is the famous
pine tree growing on the roof of Great St Mary's to prove the
truth of the local proverb " Dumnidzeu easte Sdrmdn'atu."
" God is a Samariniat " and so bestows his favours on his
native village. As to which village ranks next there is some
dispute ; Avdhela would plead education, Perivoli its forests,
its village square, and its mountain. Smiksi — happy is the
place that has no politics and no ambitions — is content to come
last among the four villages all of which consider themselves
vastly superior to their neighbours. They carry this attitude
so far that they will very rarely marry outside themselves,
and not often with one another. Of the four, intermarriage
between Avdhela and Perivoli is the commoner ; Smiksi,
which used to go more with Avdhela, has latterly owing to
its political sympathies inclined more towards Samarina.
Samarina as regards intermarriage makes an exception in
favour of Furka, and the only other villages admitted into the

THE VLACH VILLAGES NEAR SAMARINA 179

circle are Turia and Baieasa. As to the morals of the four
local cynics give their verdict thus. Smiksiats kill through
hatred ; Avdheliats rob by guile — is this the result of educa-
tion ? — ; Perivoliats rob by force ; Samariniats are skilful and
successful liars. This estimate is probably libellous, but need
not for that reason be entirely untrue.

Between Perivoli and Turia the next important village to
the south there is little to be noticed. We leave Perivoli
by the main track to Ghrevena which we follow down the
valley as far as the monastery of St Nicholas. Here according
to several accounts services in Roumanian instead of Greek
were held as far back as 1867, but the building is now in ruins
and was used some few years ago by a band of brigands
lying in wait for the Perivoliat families on their way home in
the spring. Just beyond the monastery we turn southwards
through some of the finest of the Perivoli woods and passing
a few saw mills after some two hours' walking cross a steep ridge
and emerge by the poverty-stricken hamlet of Labanitsa.
Labanitsa possesses some vineyards and a few fields of hay
and maize is situated in an open valley which under more
favourable circumstances should be capable of successful
cultivation. The soil is good and deep, there is abundance of
water and the hills around are well timbered. Despite these
natural advantages the village is in a poor condition ; the
houses are in a state of decay and its inhabitants exist rather
than live. The people of Labanitsa are Kupatshari, who have
been described in an earlier chapter.

Hence up the valley to Turia is a short three hours through
country very pleasant to look upon. Turia or as the Greeks
call it Krania is a good-looking and prosperous village consider-
ing its position near the old Grse co-Turkish frontier and on the
high road between Yannina and Ghrevena. It lies at the
foot of a group of hills adjoining the Pindus range to the north-
east of Metsovo and the stream that runs through it is a tribu-
tary of the Venetiko. The meaning of Turia the Vlach name
of the village is, as far as we can tell, unknown. Krania the
Greek name means cornel tree, and arose from the following
circumstance. A large cornel tree used to stand just outside

i8o THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

the village by the khan on the Ghrevena-Metsovo road, and,
as this was a favourite halting-place for muleteers, it became
widely known and eventually gave its name to the village.
Being considerably lower than either Perivoh or Avdhela Turia
is inhabited all the year round. It owns several cornfields and
vineyards, although some of them have been abandoned
through the political troubles of recent years. Near the village
are one or two mills ; the hills give good pasturage for sheep ;
and on the south side of Mount Ou there are several saw mills.
The Turia Vlachs, unlike those in most of the higher villages,
cultivate their fields themselves instead of employing Greek,
Turkish or Bulgar labourers. Nearly every house stands in
its own garden which is full of vegetables and flowers ; thus
the village, which is divided into several parishes, covers a
large area for its population of about two thousand souls.
There are seven churches, the largest of which built in 1790
stands in the centre of the village close to a huge plane tree.
The other six are on the outskirts of the village or else a short
distance outside it. This is the usual position for churches in
Macedonian villages and is probably due to a law in force
at least in the vilayets of Yannina and Monastir as late as the
middle of the nineteenth century, which enacted that no church
might be built within the village area. Local tradition how-
ever has a more romantic explanation for the position of the
Turia churches. All so they say, stand on the original village
boundary which was marked out some two hundred years ago
by a pair of black oxen yoked to a plough. When the boundary
was thus determined they were buried alive with the plough
on the spot where the church of St Elijah now stands. This
tale is highly suspicious, the more so since it comes from a
village which would delight in proving a Roman ancestry.
Still suspicious though the tale is, it does not however seem
to be an invention of the last few years, for it is known better
by the older generation than by the younger. Pouqueville,
who gives no authority for his statement, says that the village
was founded in 1507. Local tradition says that round about
where Turia now stands were four hamlets, Nturia, Akornu —
kornu is the Vlach for a cornel — Kaldarosha and Kodru Mare

THE VLACH VILLAGES NEAR SAMARINA i8i

which about two hundred years ago came together to found the
existing village. Leake in the early years of the nineteenth
century stayed a night at Turia and describes it as consisting
of fifty neat cottages, and having an appearance of comfort
and successful industry seldom seen in Greek or Turkish
villages ; " unhappily " for these poor Vlakhiotes " he adds,
" their village has lately become one of Aly Pasha's tjiftliks."
Since then Turia has increased and prospered and is now a free
village. Its recent history is the tale of the struggle of rival
propagandas. In 1884 a Roumanian school was started — there
had previously been only a Greek school — owing to local enter-
prise and the nationalist Vlach party grew rapidly in numbers.
The strength of the nationalists was principally due to the fact
that they found an efficient leader in Dimitri Tshikma, a man
of energy and organising ability. In the dark years between
1905 and 1908 his life was more than once attempted by
Greek bands, but he always escaped though once severely
wounded. In the autumn of 1912 he was killed when the
Greeks occupied the district. When force was employed to stop
the nationalist movement he saw to it that the bands that
came against his home got more than they gave. He enlisted
the services of the Skumbra family, three brothers, Farsherot
Vlachs and skilled brigands who settled at Turia. Just before
the war of 1912 six out of the seven churches were in the hands
of the nationalist party and their school was flourishing. This
proportion of six to one, although the Greek party was small,
exaggerates the difference in size between the two sides, and at
Turia the Greek propaganda and schools have suffered at the
hands of the nationalists. Elsewhere almost without excep-
tion, the reverse is the case, which shows what a great differ-
ence one energetic leader m.akes in spreading a propaganda.
Amongst the neighbouring villages Turia has acquired some
reputation for its dances which in summer are held nearly
every Sunday as well as on festivals. They even go so far as
to keep gipsy musicians in the village most of the summer.
To the stranger however the dances show no peculiar char-
acteristics and have no features that cannot be seen as well or
better elsewhere.

i83 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

A short distance to the west of Turia the road from Ghrevena
to Metsovo and Yannina enters the foothills of Pindus by the
narrow and wooded gorge of the river of Milia. An hour and
a half from Turia and some four hours short of Metsovo the
pass opens out into a small upland valley. Here on a knoll
above a few well-watered meadows is the small Vlach village
of Ameru, which the Greeks call Milia, locally known to fame
for the excellence of its roast lamb and its yiaurti. Although
it is situated half-way between Turia and Metsovo the centres
of rival propagandas, Ameru inclines towards the wealth and
strength of Metsovo. Vlach is the language of the village,
and the men all know Greek as well, but how far this language
is known by the women we cannot say. It is quite probable
that some of the older women know no word of Greek. In
the village itself there is little or nothing of interest ; the
church is a large barn-like building dating from 1754 and so
somewhat older than most. The neighbourhood is too un-
settled for trade, except the inevitable ones of timber cutting,
wool working, sheep rearing and muleteering. The village
is too small to do much business and many have emigrated
to find work in Constantinople, America, Australia, Roumania
and New Zealand. From Turia to Ameru the road is good,
but from Ameru to Metsovo it is little more than a rough
track, although in places it shews signs of having once been
a cobbled way.

The position of Metsovo or Amintshu, as its inhabitants
the Vlachs call it, on the great pass through Pindus over the
ridge of the Zighos, has been described so often that we may
pass on at once to some account of the village itself. Under the
Turks Metsovo was the seat of a kaimmakam and had a small
permanent garrison lodged in a tumbledown castle of no great
size that stood on a knoll in the centre of the town. The town
or rather village, for its present condition scarcely warrants
the former title, consists of two parts one on either side of a
deep ravine. The larger and more important portion which
faces south is called Serinu (Sunny, the Latin serenus) or in
Greek Prosilion, and the smaller which is situated on the lower
slopes of Peristeri and has a northern aspect is known as

THE VLACH VILLAGES NEAR SAMARINA 183

Nkiare, Sunset, or in Greek Anilion. Though both parts are
inckided under the name of Metsovo or Amintshu, yet the
latter names are as a rule restricted to Serinu, and Nkiare is
regarded as a separate village. In many old accounts of the
size of Metsovo it is often left uncertain whether Nkiare is
included or not. At present both divisions in all probability
do not contain more than six hundred houses in all, of which
the large majority and all the important public buildings are
in Serinu. Metsovo presents the curious anomaly of a worn-out
village which is still or at least up to the war of 1912 was still
decaying, but which nevertheless possesses a group of public
buildings far and away superior to those of any of its more
prosperous neighbours. These are all due to the generosity
of a number of its sons and in particular to George Averoff.
Averoff, by birth a Vlach, by name a Slav and by education
and preference a Greek, was a native of Metsovo. Leaving his
native village in early youth he had a brilliant business career
and amassed a large fortune. Having been born at a time
when all local education was entirely Greek and due to Greek
initiative and progress, Greece naturally became his adopted
country. He rebuilt the stadium at Athens in marble and
together with some other natives of Metsovo the Historical
and Ethnological Museum at Athens. The Greek cruiser that
bears his name, the only modern ship in the Greek navy, was
bought through his munificence. In his gifts to Greece his
native village was not forgotten. A large school was erected
and endowed ; a public garden was laid out ; and a large sum
of money was left on trust that its income should be used for
the improvement of Metsovo. One result of the Averoff
benefactions has been to make Metsovo more Greek than
Vlach. At the present day Vlach though still the mother
tongue is looked upon with disfavour and vigorous efforts were
made to suppress a small Vlach school which was patronised
by a few families. Whenever a stranger appears Metsovo
does its best to disguise its Vlach origin, and pretends to be
purely Greek. An interesting paper by a Greek doctor, Mr.
Spiridhon Sokolis, who practised there in 1861 shews how
great a change has taken place in this respect in recent years.

i84 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

At that time with only a few exceptions none of the women or
the boys up to the age of ten knew Greek at all, so that Mr.
Sokolis had to employ an interpreter. The men however
could speak Greek freely as it was an essential language for
commerce.

Despite its school, its buildings and the Averoff trust
Metsovo is far from being a flourishing town. It has little
trade, there is no prosperous local industry and its flocks and
herds are few. The women work wool to some extent and
recently were learning to weave carpets. The majority of the
men go to find work abroad and many of them are prosperous
merchants in Greece or in other parts of the Levant, but they
have mostly severed all connection with their original homes.
The rest, nearly all in fact who keep up any connection with
Metsovo, are small shopkeepers, smiths or wandering masons,
carpenters or wood carvers. We have already commented on
the fact that the Vlachs of Metsovo are masons, this is probably
due to its having been a settled town when most of the other
villages were still collections of temporary huts. Vlach
carpenters considering how much of the timber trade is in
Vlach hands are few in number and deficient in skill. Wood
carving as a craft seems peculiar to Metsovo and is only
practised by a few who wander from place to place in search
of work. The strong similarity that exists between the carved
screens in the churches of Pindus — some are almost identical
— suggests that all are due to the same school of carvers. It
is just possible therefore that they may be largely of Metsovite
origin, but this is mere conjecture and as far as we know is
unsupported by local tradition, although they say that the
elaborate ceilings still to be seen in some of the older houses
in Yaninna, that date from the times of Ah Pasha, are the
work of craftsmen from Metsovo.

The early history and origin of Metsovo is most obscure
and no connected account is possible, but we give the following
notes and anecdotes for what they are worth. In 1380 Thomas,
despot of Epirus, seized and extorted money from a certain
Isaiah of Metsovo whom the Chronicle of Epirus describes as
0 TiiMiojTUTog h hpof/bovuy^oig and Kudf^YoOpusvog rov Msr^o/Boy. The

THE VLACH VILLAGES NEAR SAMARINA 185

same document has many references to the Vlachs of Pindus,
especially the Malakasians, a name which then seems to have
extended as far as the Zaghori and perhaps included Metsovo
as well, though there is no other mention of the town itself.
It is not clear whether Metsovo was then in existence as a
permanent settlement or not, but by the fifteenth century it
was occupied by a group of Vlach families who were in the
habit of wintering in Thessaly at Neokhori or Ghrizhano.
The following explanation as to how this nomad village came
to obtain privileges from the Sublime Porte and so prospered
and grew, is given by Aravandinos and Lambridhis, whose
accounts differ slightly in details. If the tale is true, then it
fully exemplifies the proverb that sober truth is stranger than
fiction. In the year 1656 a Vizier fell under the displeasure
of Sultan Mohammed the fourth and was in consequence
banished to Kastoria. Even there the wrath of his master
pursued him and he was sentenced to death. However the
Vizier heard of his master's intentions in good time and so
took to flight. In his wanderings he took refuge in the house
of a priest at Ghrizhano and there he met a certain Vlach of
Metsovo, Steryiu or K'iriu Floka. Floka dressed the Vizier
in Vlach clothes, befriended him and concealed him at Metsovo.
In the due course of time it came to pass that the Sultan
repented and pardoned the Vizier who returned to Con-
stantinople and became Grand Vizier. He did not forget
Floka and sending for him asked what he desired for himself
and his native village which had sheltered him in his distress.
Whereupon Floka asked for various privileges for Metsovo,
to wit, a partial remission of taxation, special grazing rights
and the wardenship of the pass. All these were granted and
extended also to the adjacent Vlarh villages of Malakasi,
Kutsufiiani, Ameru and Vutunoshi. In this way Metsovo from
being a group of huts became a privileged town and as such
attracted Vlachs from all parts, for it offered them safety and
through its position on the pass excellent opportunities for
trade. UTiatever the truth of the tale of Floka it is a fact
that special privileges were enjoyed by Metsovo up to the time
of Ali Pasha, but they seem to have been due to the fact that

i86 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

the district was directly under the Vahde Sultan and so not
subject to the various extortions of each local pasha in turn.
Moreover towns on passes often receive preferential treatment,
especially when they are largely composed of muleteers, a
class which it is to no one's interest to oppress.

Though we cannot accept the romantic history of Aravan-
dinos and Lambridhis, for it seems that the Vlach districts had
been under the protection of the Valide Sultan ever since the
Turkish conquest in the sixteenth century, yet it does seem
to be true that it was in the seventeenth century that Metsovo
first began to prosper. Lambridhis says that in 1735 it had
379 houses, early in the nineteenth century 700, and by
1880 about 835 houses. Leake who was twice here in 1805
says that on the second occasion he was lodged at Anilio " in a
neat Vlahkiote cottage which has a plastered floor and walls
and an air of comfort unknown in the houses of the Greek
peasants." Holland who travelled in 1812 and 1813 estimates
the number of houses at fifteen hundred, which is probably an
exaggeration, and Bowen in 1850 speaks of it as a large Wal-
lachian village with about a thousand houses. Local tradition
gives an estimate of nine hundred to a thousand houses up to
1854 ; since then the village has steadily declined, and in 1911
the total number of houses both in Serinu and Nkiare did not
exceed eight hundred. It was in the eighteenth and the
early part of the nineteenth century that Metsovo flourished
and possessed an important foreign trade. It is said that
from 1 719 there was a French commercial agency at Metsovo
concerned mainly with the export trade. Metsovo merchants
had business houses in Venice, Naples, Trieste, Marseilles,
Vienna, Moscow, Odessa, Constantinople, Salonica, Seres and
Alexandria. Woollen goods and thick goat's-hair capes or
cloaks were the principal objects of this export trade, though
cheese also played a considerable part. The cheese trade alone
still continues, and kash kaval is manufactured near Metsovo
and exported to Italy. Local accounts confirm the existence
of this extensive foreign trade, but add little or nothing to our
knowledge of its details. Native industries and home trade
prospered at the same time. Pewter plates and dishes were a

THE VLACH VILLAGES NEAR SAMARINA 187

local manufacture and a few are still to be seen to-day in the
village. Woollen rugs and carpets with ornate designs were in
demand locally and this weaving industry has recently been
revived. A large carr^dng trade over the Zighos and along
the Ghrevena road added to the importance of the town, and
in return for giving hospitality to officials and distinguished
strangers Metsovo was excused all taxes but the poll tax. This
arrangement did not necessarily mean that the village gained
much, because the inhabitants had to support a detachment
of armatoli to safeguard the pass. The decline of Metsovo
began in the time of Ali Pasha of Yannina who succeeded in
getting the town into his hands and in setting its privileges at
naught. Leake, Pouqueville and others writing about this
time describe the rapid increase in brigandage and taxation
which seriously injured all trade. Then came the Greek re-
volution of 1 82 1 which laid all wealthy christian villages open
to suspicion and plunder, and about the same time the inven-
tion of the power-loom in the west of Europe fatally injured
the woollen trade.

Any prosperity that remained was finally extinguished
by the so-called revolution or un-official war of 1854. The
Russian attack on the northern provinces of Turkey in Europe
had provoked the most sanguine hopes in Greece, and it was
generally believed that with the appearance of Greek forces
across the frontier, Epirus and Thessaly would rise at once
against the Turks. Officially the Greek government kept the
peace, but unofficially it encouraged the sending of bands over
the frontier to stir up insurrection. As happened in the case of
Samarina and its neighbours the main result of this movement,
which was a curious mixture of patriotism and plunder, was
that those who were to be freed from Turkish tyranny found
themselves pillaged by both sides. During the few months,
for which this rising lasted, Metsovo like other towns and
villages in Epirus, and Thessaly suffered heavy losses. The
town had been incited to revolt by the Greek consul at Yan-
nina and became the prey of both sides in turn. Ghrivas the
most prominent of the Greek leaders occupied it and levied
150,000 piastres from the inhabitants. On the approach of

i88 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

the Turkish troops he assembled the women and children in a
church on the pretext of defending them, but, when he once had
them safely inside, stripped them of all their jewellery and
valuables. He then retired to the most easily defensible
part of the town, but when the Turks began to attack, retired
burning some thirty houses to cover his retreat. Abdi Pasha
entered Metsovo and what had been left by Ghrivas was taken
by the Albanian irregulars. In all about a third of the village
was destroyed and the rest reduced to a condition of the utmost
misery. To this account taken almost word for word from the
Parliamentary Papers we may add an extract from a letter of
Ghrivas himself which may to some extent shift the blame from
the leader to his followers.

" After a battle of historic fame at Metsovo, of which I sent
you the description and plan to-day, seeing the greatest con-
spiracies and treacheries existing against me on the part of my
companions in arms I was compelled to retreat thence and to
take the direction of Thessaly. . . . Whilst in Epirus I beheld so
many of our soldiers indulging in every sort of violence, I was
compelled to dismiss them and now I have about four hundred
chosen men. Were I to tell you all the atrocities which had
been committed against the property and honour of the
christian population by our soldiers both in Epirus and Thessaly
you would be struck with horror and would curse the hour in
which this new struggle had first begun."

Even before the district had been cleared of Greek troops
Metsovo and other christian villages were appealing to the
Turks for aid. The troubles of 1878 and 1881 did not affect
Metsovo so much except that the brigandage that followed the
rising made the country generally unhealthy for trade. But
after the cession of Thessaly to Greece in the latter year and the
advance of the Gr?eco-Turkishfrontier to a line between Metsovo
and Malakasi the resulting customs barrier on the Zighos killed
what hopes there were of a revival of trade in this direction.
The last Balkan war of 1912-13 and the consequent cession of
Epirus to Greece may revive the trade between Yannina and
Thessaly along this route, and in this case Metsovo may once
again prosper, but it is at present too early to judge how great

THE VLACH VILLAGES NEAR SAMARINA 189

a drain this last war has been on the resources of the country.
To the south of Metsovo along the southern part of the Pindus
chain the Vlach villages continue. This large group of villages
is known as the Aspropotamos district mainly because many
of them lie about the upper waters of that river. But geo-
graphically and to some extent too dialectically they form a
separate division of the Vlachs, and since their recent history
has been so different from that of their northern neighbours
and we have not been able to visit any of their villages our-
selves we omit them here. They will be briefly discussed in a
later chapter.

From Metsovo therefore we go northwards and following
the western slope of Pindus instead of the east we come to
Baieasa and the other Vlach villages of the Zaghori. The
Zaghori is a rough and hilly district in upper Epirus lying
between Pindus and the mountains usually known as Papingu
and Mitsikeli. The main road from Metsovo to Yannina
which follows the course of the river of Metsovo may be said to
form the southern boundary of the Zaghori and the upper
waters of the Aous from its source to Konitsa the northern limit .
The main route from Metsovo into the Zaghori runs northward
following up the course of the river of Metsovo and then turning
to the west by the khan called Pantalonia on the Austrian
Staff map comes to Floro the first of the Vlach villages of the
Zaghori. The khan of Pandalonia, which being interpreted
means " The Trousers Inn," owes its name on the maps to a
mistake, for its proper name is Pende Alonia, the Five Threshing
Floors. Many reasons made it impossible for us to visit all the
Zaghori villages and therefore we made directly for Baieasa by
a little used route which follows the course of the Aous. This
track is rather inaccurately marked on the maps and since it
passes several places of interest it seems worth while to describe
it in detail.

We ascend the hill slope to the north behind Metsovo and
following the course of the river upwards reach in about forty
minutes a fine, well watered plain on the eastern side of which
the Aous rises. This particular plain has given rise to some
discussion owing to the existence in connection with it of

190 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

several names supposed to be survivals from antiquity. Leake
who was the first to call attention to them, says that the whole
plain is called Politzia and that on a slope near it is a place
known as Beratori which is thought to be a corruption of
Imperatoria. Here wrought stones are said to be found as well
as coins and traces of metal working. On the opposite side to
Beratori stood a beech tree called " Fago Scripto." The name
of the plain is said to be derived from the Greek 'TroXirsla, and to
indicate that a city once stood here. The Vlachs to-day call it
Pulitshaii or if they talk Greek Pulitsa or Pulitses which is
probably merely the Slavonic Politsa, plain. Likewise the
name Fagu Skriptu is of no importance, although, in spite of
the fact that there is no "written beech tree" there to-day,
the name still survives applied to a small wood.

A name like this is not nearly so remarkable as has been
thought. We have seen in the case of Samarina that it is a
Vlach characteristic to name each prominent rock, tree, hill
or wood, and many similar place names could be quoted.
Imperatoria or as we were told Peritore is a spot on the stony
slope at the bottom of the south-western side of Mount Ou. It
lies on the east bank of the Aous just opposite to the point where
the road to Floro turns away due west. We could see nothing
of the ruins which are tentatively marked on the Austrian map
and are mentioned by Leake and Weigand, but about the plain
opposite to Imperatoria on the west bank of the Aous we saw
indications that seem to show that metal working had once been
carried on here. If however Peritore or whatever the correct
local form of the name may be, does stand for Imperatoria,
which we are inclined to doubt, it would seem to show that a
military camp of Roman times had stood here. That there had
been a military camp here would not be remarkable because this
plain lies at the junction of so many important routes. To-day
it is covered with grassy and well watered meadows. In spring
and early summer the edges of the rivulets are bright with wild
flowers and the scent of the new mown hay is heavy in the air.

From the supposed site of Imperatoria to Baieasa the Aous
instead of flowing almost straight as the Austrian map implies
makes a large bend to the west, and the track that is marked

THE VLACH VILLAGES NEAR SAMARINA 191

as following the river bank is also unknown. On enquiring at
a shepherd's camp the best way to Baieasa we learnt that there
was a path over the stony ridge on the east bank cutting
across the bend and rej oining the river about two hours further
north. The man in charge of the cheese making in the
camp turned out to be a Vlach from Siraku who was busy mak-
ing kash kaval for export to Italy.

After crossing the ridge mentioned we came down to the
river again by some saw mills belonging to Baieasa. From this
point to the village our route followed the course of the river
through a rough and well wooded gorge passable only on foot.
The timber from the saw mills is not taken into Baieasa, but
direct to Yannina by way of Floro, and the men at the saw
mills are only able to find the path to the village by blazing
trees at intervals to serve as guides. About an hour before
reaching Baieasa we came to the point where the Vale Kalda
j oins the Aous, and from there onwards the valley widens out
and the path is easy. The gorge through which we came was
full of splendid timber, and the scenery is good, but the place
has a bad name, for brigandage is not unknown and the sawyers
are not left to follow their trade in peace.

Baieasa called by the Greeks Vovusa which is also the
modern name of the Aous is the most eastern of the villages of
Zaghori. The extent of this district has already been indicated,
but since it is one of the best known parts of Epirus a brief
digression will not be out of place here. The Roumanian
propaganda claims that the whole region once spoke Vlach,
but that in the course of time it has been largely hellenized.
This is inaccurate for really only the eastern part of the Zaghori
has been and still is Vlach, while the whole of the western
portion has always been Greek as far as our knowledge goes.
From the time of Leake to the present day there has been no
great diminution of the Vlach speaking area which comprises
the following villages : —

Leshnitsa, Dobrinovo, PaHohori, Laka called by the
Greeks Laista, Baieasa, Tsherneshi, SeshT, Floro called by the
Greeks Phlamburari, Grebenitsi, Makrini, Dragari, Doliani and
Dreshteniku.

192 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

Of these the last four are at least semi-hellenized, and all
the others are Greek in politics though there is a Roumanian
party in Baieasa and a few adherents of it in Laka and Tsherneshi
and one or two other places. Apart from these the remainder
of the forty-two villages which are reckoned as belonging to the
Zaghori are inhabited by Greeks alone and in spite of rumours
to the contrary it does not seem that villages like Neghadhes,
Thsepolovo and Phrangadhes ever spoke any other language
within the memory of man. It will be noticed that the name
Zaghori itself and many of the village names are of Slavonic
origin, and this feature is common both to the Greek and Vlach
villages. A few Slavonic words are to be found in the local
dialect of Greek and the Vlach as always contains Slavonic
traces, but in all other respects no Slavonic influence can be
detected to-day, although the names indicate that there was
once a Slavonic domination and probably also settlement in
the region concerned.

The advance and increase of Hellenism in the Zaghori is due
almost entirely to its close contact with Yannina. In Turkish
times it was directly dependent on the Vali of Yannina and it
was one of the ancestral dominions of Ali Pasha. Yannina
like Metsovo was and still is to some extent a great centre
of commerce and at the same time of Hellenic education.
The Greek schools at Yannina in the eighteenth and early
nineteenth centuries had considerable influence not only in the
city itself, but in the country subject to it. The spread of
Greek at that time can be seen in various ways. Ali Pasha used
Greek almost as his offtcial language, and over the gate of his
castle at Yannina is an inscription in Greek in which he claims
descent from Pyrrhus king of Epirus. The great epic of more
than ten thousand lines relating all his exploits which it was
his great delight to have read to him by its author Haj ji Sekhret
a Moslem Albanian from Dhelvino is written entirely in Greek.
A Moslem Albanian who claims in modern Greek to be a
descendant of Pyrrhus and delights in a Greek epic of his own
deeds recited to him by his own Homer is a most remarkable
phenomenon. Important however though the Greek schools
at Yannina were, the view that they caused a revival of learning

THE VLACH VILLAGES NEAR SAMARINA 193

cannot be held unless the term learning is degraded to its
lowest level. Education then as now meant first and foremost
reading and writing, and because all letters then were Greek
it meant the spread of Hellenism. The part played by such
education in the racial questions of the Nearer East can hardly
be appreciated in Western Europe.

One man beyond all others helped to spread Greek educa-
tion among the villages of the Zaghori ; this was a Greek
priest known since his martyrdom as Ayios Kosmas. The
Vlach tales about this interesting man are many and various,
and most are highly coloured by political propaganda that
only originated many years after his death.

Now this is the story that the Greeks tell. In the year
1714 in the village of Meghalo Dhendri in the district of Nau-
pactus there was born a boy to whom the name Konstas was
given. From his earliest youth upwards he was filled with a
great desire for all kinds of learning and having passed through
many schools with great distinction he withdrew in the year
1758 to the Holy Mountain to the monastery called Philotheu,
where he changed his name to Kosmas. After two years at
Athos he repaired to Constantinople and entered on his life's
work by preaching in the churches ; thence he journeyed to
Naupactus, Mesolongi and Vrakhori preaching there likewise.
In 1775 he was at Athos once again before setting forth on a
long missionary journey through Albania, Epirus, Acarnania
and Macedonia. It was on this journey that he visited the
Zaghori. His fiery zeal for religion was only equalled by his
passion for education ; he founded many schools ; his elo-
quence wherever he went attracted great crowds, and Turk
and christian alike regarded him as a prophet. He foretold
to Ah Pasha, so the legend runs, his future power and great-
ness, and after his death Ali Pasha contributed towards
building a church to his memory near Berat. The end of this
holy man came on August 24th 1779 when he was hanged at
Berat by the Turks at the instigation of the Jews of Yannina.
Among some of the Vlachs, especially the nationalists, a
different tale is current. They record his journeys among
the Vlach villages ; at Samarina the place where he preached
13

194 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

is still shown and the date of his visit is recorded on a rock ;
he is said to have passed through Baieasa in 1777. But so
far from being regarded as a saint he is spoken of with the
utmost hatred as a Greek political agent. He taught so it
is said that Greek was the language of God and Vlach that of
the devil. His prophecies and miracles too, it is said, were
due to trickery and he is accused of using torture against all
who would not believe in him.

There is probably more truth in both these versions and
less discrepancy between them than at first sight appears.
To attribute his zeal for Greek schools to political propaganda
to reclaim " Vlachophone Hellenes " is to antedate a move-
ment by about a centur}^ since it was not until recent times
that the theory of Hellenes and Vlachs being racially the
same was ever perpetrated. Kosmas encouraged Hellenism
merely because he encouraged reading and writing, for the
two were then almost identical, and for the rest he was prob-
ably a fanatical priest. Persecution is a common fault in
such characters, if they are intolerant of opposition, and
trickery is little thought of especially in such surroundings.
For example there is prevalent in Macedonia a legend of a
priest, who by the aid of a gramophone concealed in a tree
produced a political speech from God Almighty. The
nationality of the priest differs according to the teller of the
tale, but the device is thought clever and Odyssean rather
than disgraceful. That Kosmas at times exceeded the limits
of peaceful persuasion seems probable from one of his own
letters in which he says, " Ten thousand christians love me
and one hates me ; a thousand Turks love me and one not
so much ; a thousand Hebrews desire my death and only one
does not." The greatest tribute to his personality is the fact
recorded by Leake and confirmed by local tradition, that at
his orders the fair sex of the Zaghori did their hair after a new
fashion and adopted a new form of headdress. The spread
of the Greek language in which Kosmas helped both by his
teaching and by his martyrdom has brought with it the spread
of Greek customs and ideals. And now intermarriage between
Greek and Vlach will help to weld the two races into one.

THE VLACH VILLAGES NEAR SAMARINA 195

The past history of the Zaghori which is mainly a Hst of
acts of brigandage and oppression can be found in a detailed,
but muddled form in Lambridhis. Each village seems to
have gone through very similar experiences, so that a few
details of the past of Baieasa will suffice for an example.
From the middle of the sixteenth century up to the time of
Ali Pasha at the beginning of the nineteenth the villages of
the Zaghori possessed special privileges and many of them were
under the Valide Sultan. But to regard them, as is some-
times done, as forming a semi-independent republic is to go
beyond the evidence. The independence such as it was, was
presumably more illegal than legal, and the Capitans little
different from those that existed in every part of the peninsula.

Baieasa itself according to local tradition was formed by
an amalgamation of four hamlets, Baietan, St a Vinera,
Bistritsi and Sand Dumetru. The first of these Baietan it is
said helped to found Perivoli and since the dialects of Baieasa
and Perivoli belong to the same group it may be true that
they have a common origin. The last of the four hamlets
Sand Dumetru is now the upper quarter of Baieasa around
the church of Saint Demetrius. Apparently these hamlets
were not permanent habitations, for they say that the people
of Baieasa once used to winter at Doliani the Vlach village
lower down in the Zaghori. So it is possible that Baieasa
was at first only the summer resort of the shepherds of Doliani
who eventually made a permanent settlement in the hills.
Outside the village in a small side valley on the other bank of
the river a group of Farsherot Vlachs have recently encamped
each summer. So far they have lived in wooden huts and
booths, but this annual camp if it continues will in time prob-
ably join up with the existing village.

During the eighteenth century, this is the boast of Baieasa,
the three most famous Capitans of the Zaghori were natives of
this village and their names and exploits are still recalled.
They were Yoti Blatshola 1710-1750, Nikolak'i Davli 1750-
1780 and Badzhu Bairaktari 1780-1800. The dates of these
three chieftains were told us in Baieasa, but are too simple
to be accurate and are probably only approximate. Lam-

196 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

bridhis gives the same three names thus, TiMrrj MTTocXrfftopu,
Aov(5Kri, and Mxar^/o? ; and he assigns the first to 1700-1710,
but does not date the other two. Blatshola's chief claim to
fame is the following exploit. He was once captured by his
enemies, and handed over to the Turks at Yannina and
sentenced to be immersed in boiling pitch. When brought
to the pot he dipped his hands in the boiling liquid and fling-
ing it over executioners, troops and crowd made good his
escape. He was afterwards killed near Metsovo. The courage
of Davli is proverbial, but examples of his bravery do not
survive. Badzhu whose name Bairaktari means standard-
bearer, is usually connected with Ali Pasha whose standard-
bearer he is believed to have been. As far as the traditional
dates go this is quite possible, but the title Bairaktari has,
especially in Albania, the meaning tribal chief and so the tale
that he carried Ali Pasha's banner is probably only a pious
local fiction.

Brigandage which has always been one of the great pastimes
of the Southern Balkans seems to have reached its height in
the Zaghori. During the eighteenth century only six cases
on a large scale and all due to Moslem Albanians are recorded,
but between the fall of Ali Pasha and 1878 there were twenty-
one. In this period Greek and Vlach brigands played a
prominent part, especially Zhakas, and according to Aravan-
dinos whose accounts are fully confirmed by local tradition,
the christian bands surpassed the Moslem in their fiendish
cruelty. One reason for the increase of these raids was the
existence in the neighbourhood of a political frontier after
the freedom of Greece. A frontier is in fact a necessity for
brigandage on a large scale ; during the winter the bands
live in peace ; in the summer they cross the frontier and return
in the autumn with their plunder and perhaps with prisoners
for ransom. This well known system has continued up to
the present day and a brigand on one side of the frontier was a
national hero the other, as in the cases of the brothers Skumbra
and of DaveHs. Between 1878 and 1883 brigandage as the
aftermath of the rising of 1878 seems to have been incessant.
In these five years £T6o,ooo were levied from the Zaghori,

THE VLACH VILLAGES NEAR SAMARINA 197

out of which Baieasa paid two thousand pounds. Whole
villages were sacked and many of the deeds done cannot be
described here. Among the more notorious leaders were
Davelis, Leonidha of Samarina whose exploit at Baieasa has
been referred to above, Manekas a Bulgarian, Gika an Albanian,
the brothers Garelia of Briaza, Ghushu al Dhispuli of Samarina
and Takos from Eurytania, and they on several occasions are
said to have disregarded the rules of the code of klephtic
honour. The system of ransom usually respected was often
abused. One band seized a newly married couple, who thus
spent their short honeymoon with the brigands. The bride-
groom was ransomed and released ; then a ransom was de-
manded for the bride which was duly paid. But the brigands
killed her and returned her dead body to the expectant bride-
groom. Boiling oil and the practice of toasting women in
ovens were among the methods employed for extorting money.
Davelis whom we have met at his Thessalian home, where
he ranks as a national hero, has the worst local reputation.
Takos of Eurytania retired to his native land in Greece, but
could not discontinue his habits and attracted the attention
of the government. However he was protected by a fellow
countryman then minister of justice. In 1883 after strenuous
efforts on the part of the Turkish authorities this carnival
of brigandage ceased and since then similar atrocities have
not been committed, although brigandage on a small scale has
continued and children have from time to time been seized
and held for ransom. On the top of the steep and wooded
ridge opposite Baieasa on the west bank of the river is a spot
known as La Fezlu, where is the grave of a Turkish officer
who was killed in the pursuit of the brigands. His death is
celebrated in the following Vlach song : —

Has not Filureaoa satisfied you, Turk, Warden of the Passes ?
Have not the Hashia satisfied you, that you liave gone out by night
on the mountains up to the Vlach viUages and that you were going to
Tsherneshi to the Vlach huts ? And the shepherds were saying to
you and the shepherds tell you, " To Baieasa Turk do not go, do not
go to Baieasa for there all the brigands are assembled, for there are all
the capitans. There is the dog Gika, and Ghushu al Dhispuli, Ghushu
al Dhispuli the old man, the one with the long beard, there is Capitan

198 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

Makri, Makri the Perivoliat, and Turk, there are the Garelia's, the
brothers Garelia of Briaza." The Turk he would not hear, the Turk
he would not listen. The Turk fought at Baieasa with those Vlach
brigands and the famous Turk was killed, the poor fellow was killed.

Apart from acts of brigandage Baieasa suffered on other
occasions. In 1814 it was plundered by the orders of Ali
Pasha and in 1829 during the Greek revolution was sacked
by the Turks. In consequence of this the inhabitants left
their home and took refuge in Greece at Vudhonitsa near
Thermopylae, but the natural attraction of the mountains for
the Vlachs made them come back in 1835. But one result of
its past history and sufferings is that from time to time, especi-
ally at the beginning of the eighteenth century, many families
left the village and wandered forth to find fresh homes else-
where. Most of them went to Western Thrace, where they
settled in Seres itself, at Dzhumaia which has three hundred
families from Baieasa, Poroi, Nigrita, Melenik, Nevrekop and
at Peshtera on Rhodope. In recent years emigration to
America has robbed the village of the young men.

Few if any villages in Pindus have a more beautiful situa-
tion than Baieasa. The river already a considerable stream,
which is not easy to ford in summer and in winter is a raging
torrent, divides the village into two parts, joined by a bridge
of the usual Turkish type, a high narrow arch with low parapets
so that loaded mules can pass with ease (Plate XXII i).
The houses in the village are usually several stories high and
carefully built for defence with few or no windows on the
ground floor. The main part of the village is on the east
bank of the river and the bridge mentioned affords the sole
means of access to it. In the small quarter on the west bank
the church of St Athanasius stands close to the bridge head
which it serves to guard, for it is built entirely of stone with
a solid domed roof and loopholed. All the inhabitants are
Vlachs, but the men know Greek. There is a Greek school
and a Roumanian, though the building was destroyed by a
Greek band in 1905 and has not since been rebuilt. The
chief trade is in timber, for Baieasa boasts that it possesses
more saw mills than any other Vlach village. The other

PLATE XXII

1. BAIEASA: BRIDGE OVER THE AOUS

, VERRIA: THE C.HKTTO

THE VLACH VILLAGES NEAR SAMARINA 199

common Vlach trades of sheep rearing, wool working and
muleteering are also practised, but none to any very great
extent, for many of the muleteers employed in carrying Baieasa
timber to Yannina are Samariniats. The costume originally
worn was very similar to that at Samarina ; but this is now
mostly replaced by European or rather a la Franca coats
and trousers. Many of the Zaghori villages, Vlach and Greek
alike, wear a costume like that in vogue in Epirus with white
stockings and short blue trousers. This though a native
costume seems to be an innovation in the Vlach villages, and
is perhaps due to the influence of Ayios Kosmas.

The great feature of Baieasa which distinguishes it from all
its neighbours is the possession of a wooden clock made on a
novel plan by a native who died only recently at a great age
and has already become the centre of a group of legends.
Apparently quite unlettered he devised a number of mechanical
improvements chiefly connected with water mills and smithies.
Stories are told of his wonderful power of making calculations
in his head which even the European enquirer could only
do on paper. Locally he was regarded as being almost un-
canny. Examples of unusual ability are often found among
the Balkan villagers quite irrespective of race, but the faculty
for invention other than verbal, is exceedingly rare. Imple-
ments and tools of everyday use even among the Greeks —
the sharpest -witted in a way of the Balkan peoples — are of a
primitive type or else copies of European models.

Three hours north-west of Baieasa — the first half up a
hilly slope and the second a gradual descent along a narrow,
but fertile valley — brought us to Laka or Laista as the Greeks
call it. An hour and a half farther north on a bluff between
the Aous and one of its tributaries is Paliohori. Both are
Vlach villages and have had a typical history similar to that
of other Zaghori villages. Laka was in Leake's day one of
the most prosperous, but since then it has suffered much
from brigandage and the lack of security. Most of its four
hundred houses are stfll in good repair and it has a good Greek
school and a well-paved misohori shaded by a large plane tree.
Trade however is bad, the fields and vineyards are not sufficient

200 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

to support the population and most have to emigrate. Emi-
gration has for many years been the main support of the
villages of the Zaghori, Greek and Vlach alike. The men
often go to work in Constantinople or at Drama, Kavala or
other towns of the Thracian littoral, but the majority have
in times past gone to seek their fortunes in Roumania especially
the Greeks. In some villages to-day there is hardly an able-
bodied man to be seen, for all have gone abroad to make
money. It was quite a common thing for a young couple to
marry, and then for the bridegroom to go off to try his luck
in foreign parts. He might never return, or he might come
back after many years to a wife who had almost forgotten
him and to a child he had never seen. In the folk-songs of
the Zaghori there are a great number which refer to this state
of affairs. Many of them are in the form of laments by brides
or deserted sweethearts invoking curses on Roumania for
detaining their men. To-day the same class of song continues,
but with the substitution of America for Roumania. Laka
if asked would declare itself to be of pure Hellenic stock, but
in private all its inhabitants talk Vlach glibly. We were told
with pride that the women all know Greek, which probably
means that some still know only Vlach. The knowledge of
Vlach songs was also denied, but one which was recited to us
is given on a later page. Paliohori which claims to be the
mother village of Laka — a claim that Laka disputes — was
sacked by Leonidha and Davelis and has never recovered.
Most of its houses are in ruins and the twenty-five that stand
are not in good condition ; the fields are neglected and its
few inhabitants poverty-stricken. It is less hellenized than
Laka, for some of the inhabitants display an affection for their
mother tongue. Here an older type of costume is preserved
especially amongst the women, which resembles that of Laka
illustrated by Weigand.

An hour and a half west of Paliohori and close under the
precipices of the highest part of Papifigu which is here known
as Gamila, Mount Camel, is Dobrinovo, a village in size and
appearance very similar to Laka. The whole village talks
Vlach as its native tongue, but our enquiries into its history

THE VLACH VILLAGES NEAR SAMARINA 20T

and dialect did not meet with approval. North of Dobrinovo
is the last Vlach village of the Zaghori, Leshnitsa, a small
village, but outwardly more prosperous than either Laka or
Dobrinovo. By race and language it is Vlach, but in politics
and religion Greek.

It will be seen that of the Vlach villages in the Zaghori
we can speak of five only from our own personal knowledge,
Baieasa, Laka, Paliohori, Dobrinovo, and Leshnitsa. All these
are entirely Vlach by race and in all of them Vlach is the mother
tongue, yet in four cases out of the five the great majority
of the people are Greek in feehng. Corresponding with this
political division is a division in the mode of life. The most
hellenized villages are those that have been agricultural or
non-nomadic for a long time. Baieasa on the other hand to
judge by its history has not long ceased to be nomadic and from
its timber trade and muleteering has remained more typically
Vlach. Generally this distinction holds good in the southern
part of Pindus too, the hill villages which depend on trade and
muleteering, two professions more closely connected in the
past than now, retain their sense of nationality and even when
hellenized still consider themselves Vlachs. The agricultural
villages on the other hand tend to deny any Vlach origin at
all. The fundamental cause is historical and religious and
goes back far beyond any modern political propaganda. The
agricultural villages have always had a precarious existence,
and oppression from their rulers and their fellow-countrymen
has reduced the sense of independence to a very low ebb.
They have also intermarried more freely with the Greek,
Albanian or Bulgarian villages round them. The hill villages
such as Samarina or Avdhcla are proud of their nationality
and their independence, and rarely marry outside their own
special group. If they do marry outside it is the men who do
so, and then usually for the sake of the cash dowry which the
Greeks give, but Vlachs do not. Such men after marriage
settle in the plains and towns, and so in the hill villages them-
selves there is little or no intermixture of Greek blood.

To the north of Aous, high up on the slopes of Zmolku and
so overlooking the Zaghori is a line of Vlach villages, Palioseli,

202 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

Padza, and Armata. These all stand on a track that leads
from Konitsa along the south side of Zmolku and over Ghiimara
by way of Briaza and Smiksi to Ghrevena. Though now of
little importance this track in places shews signs of having
once been cobbled and so was probably in earlier times a much
used through route. Of the first two villages Palioseli and
Padza which both contain over two hundred houses we can
say little, for we arrived at an ill-omened hour when the annual
examination at the Greek school was taking place. Both
villages were eager to prove their pure Hellenic origin, and so
all our enquiries about their history and dialect were out of
place. They are both Vlach by race and language and re-
semble Laka and Dobrinovo in many ways. Neither of them
seems particularly flourishing, as trade is bad in consequence
of brigandage ; they are agricultural and so mainly supported
by the men who all go abroad to make money.

From the track between Palioseli and Padza a wonderful
view can be obtained. Behind us to the north is the triple
mass of Zmolku, the highest peak of Pindus ; in front and
immediately below us is the Aous hurrying down to the
Adriatic ; beyond to the south is the Zaghori which from here
seems to consist of parallel ranges of hills running north and
south. On the east rise the lower peaks of Pindus, Ghumara,
Vasilitsa and Ou with their lower slopes covered with thick
pine woods. In strong contrast to the gravelly hills of the
Zaghori and the woods of Pindus is the western boundary
with the bare and craggy sierra of Papingu which rises in
height towards the north where it ends in a vast wall of lime-
stone cliffs. Between this and the southwestern end of Zmolku
is a narrow, deep and precipitous cafion through which the Aous
forces its way into the plain of Konitsa.

The position of Papingu and Zmolku frowning at one an-
other across the Aous has caused the Vlachs to locahse here a
folktale of which many versions are found in the Balkans
and particularly amongst the Vlachs. It probably belongs to
the class of tales that are native to a district rather than to
any one race. In Vlach folklore the mountain personified
as a demon plays a leading part, and this is especially true of

THE VLACH VILLAGES NEAR SAMARINA 203

any mountain that has a small lake near its summit. It is in
this lake that the demon has his home and in Vlach folklore
as a rule he was originally a shepherd who being crossed in love
drowned himself and his flock. On Zmolku there is such a
lake known as the Laku Vinitu, the Blue Pool, and this is
inhabited by an evil spirit who was in earlier life a shepherd
broken-hearted through unrequited love. The tale referring
to Zmolku and Papingu says that the demons of these two
mountains fought by hurling great rocks at each other, a
veritable war of giants. Eventually the demon of Zmolku
conquered by a trick worthy of Odysseus. Each demon would
catch in his mouth the boulders the other hurled, and swallow
them like peas. The demon of Zmolku, deceitful like all
Samariniats, compounded boulders of salt, and so made his
adversary terribly thirsty. The demon of Papiflgu lay down
to drink, and drank and drank and drank till he burst. Thus
they explain the presence of white boulders round the Lakil
Vinitu, because though there is no white stone on Zmolku,
there is on Papiiigu, and so these white stones are some of those
which the demon of Papingu hurled across at his enemy.

Of the past history of the three Vlach villages north of the
Aous we must plead complete ignorance. Lambridhis seems
to imply that they produced their full quota of brigands, but
latterly they have been more sinned against than sinning,
Armata the last of the three a poor hamlet of less than a hun-
dred houses is connected with the monastery of Samarina
which owns land, especially vineyards, in the village. Locally
it is famous for the mythical beauty of its maidens. It is
mainly an agricultural village, does little trade and anyone,
who can, leaves it. We have met men of Armata settled at
Verria and others who have made money in America. Under
a good government and with security it might prosper, but the
men and women of Armata who live there will always have to
wring a hard living from the ungrateful soil by the sweat of
their brows.

The last Vlach village on Pindus to the south of Samarina
is Briaza, which lies on the east bank of the Aous at the point
where the river flowing north from Baieasa turns westwards

204 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

to Konitsa. The country round is well wooded and the village
lies in the midst of vineyards and cherry orchards. It is mainly
agricultural, though there are several saw mills and its people
are noted for the excellence of the pitch they make. Despite
apparent natural advantages Briaza is at a low ebb, and in
prosperity must rank with Padza, Palioseli and the Zaghori
villages generally rather than with Samarina or Perivoli.
Much of its present state is due to lack of public safety, for it
has suffered both recently and in the past from bands political
and otherwise. Lambridhis describes it as a shameless nest of
robbers and names a certain Efthimiu who flourished about
1837 as the most notorious offender. There are two schools
in the village, Greek and Roumanian, and no friction exists
between them as long as they are left to themselves. This
is the case in most villages and most of the Macedonian feuds
about religion and education have been organised from outside.
Vlach is the tongue commonly spoken and some of the women
know no other. A costume similar to that of Samarina except
in detail is still worn, but is rapidly being given up for European
clothes.

A short three hours north of Samarina is the Vlach village
of Furka. The road to it leaves Samarina by the place called
Mermishaklu and thence follows up the river of Samarina to
its source on the ridge known as La Greklu. This is covered
with thick beech woods where the Samarina folk come to cut
fuel, and owing to the woods and the narrowness and diffi-
culty of the road on the summit it has always been a favourite
place for brigands to hold up caravans of Samarina muleteers
on the way from Yannina. A little beyond the spring called
La Greklu the Yannina road goes straight down the valley
of a small stream through pleasant upland meadows to Kera-
sova. They say that the spring owes its name to a Greek,
who was in bad health and came up to Samarina for the summer
to be cured by its fine climate and good water. After a few
days he was so much better that he could venture a walk as
far as this spring. He drank of its water, reputed to be the
coldest on Zmolku, and at once dropped down dead. Baieasa
has a similar tale and the Vlachs are never tired of telling such

THE VLACH VILLAGES NEAR SAMARINA 205

stories about the excellence and coldness of their mountain
springs. From La Greklu the path to Furka bears away to
the north following the top of a low line of hills on which the
village stands. Unhke Samarina Furka is not a nomad vil-
lage, for its inhabitants, at least the womenfolk, stay there all
the year. In days gone by it supported itself by sheep rearing
and agriculture. To-day agriculture is still carried on, but in
a feeble manner ; and the numbers of its flocks have declined.
The troubles of 1878 affected Furka shepherds very severely,
and, though the majority of the resident men make their
living by sheep, yet the village as a whole lives on money
from abroad. All the able-bodied young men are in America
or elsewhere making money to support parents and sisters or
wives and children. Brigandage as elsewhere has been the
curse of the village and the tall tower-like houses of the big
shepherd families still standing are silent witnesses to the
fact that in Furka no man of means was safe unless his house
was his castle. A few years ago too political bands troubled
them, and the small Roumanian party was extinguished. In
costume the people resemble Samarina very closely and with
Furka the Samariniats have more intercourse than with any
other village except Smiksi. They will give their daughters
in marriage to Furka, an honour which they rarely or never do
to any other village. Perhaps it hardly deserves this honour,
for its houses, not two hundred in number, are mean and dirty,
and this collection of ruinous dwellings makes a very poor
appearance on the top of a treeless, windswept slope. Of its
history we know little. It once had over three thousand in-
habitants, but fell into the hands of AH Pasha as a chiftlik.
In consequence of their sufferings the people began to emigrate,
and all were about to go forth in a body to find a new home,
when the Turkish government intervened and forbade emi-
gration fearing the country would be depopulated.

CHAPTER X
THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE VLACHS

'Hfifls ol BXdxoi OTTO)? Xaxj]-

We Vlachs are the Children of Chance.

Greek Proverb

BESIDE the Vlachs in the northern part of Pindus
who have ah'eady been described, there are numerous
other groups in various parts of the Balkan peninsula,
which can often be distinguished by differences in dialect and
in some instances by a difference in costume. The members
of some of these isolated groups are often known collectively
by certain names ; for example all who live in the villages on
Mount Gramos are called Gramosteani, the Vlachs of Albania
also are known as Farsherots or by the Greeks as Arvanito-
vlakhi, Albanian Vlachs. These names which are for the
most part geographical, have remained unchanged by migra-
tions and so denote the place of origin which is often not the
present place of residence. The Farsherots, who have wandered
more than most, are often to be found far away from the
borders of Albania. The chief Vlach districts to-day are
distributed as follows.

In Acarnania there is a group of six Farsherot villages
which are fully inhabited during the winter ; in the summer
the people go up into the southern part of Pindus with their
flocks. The largest village which according to Weigand has
about seven hundred and fifty inhabitants is Kutsobina, but
the best known and most accessible is the hamlet of Suroveli
which occupies part of the site of Stratos close to the Aspro-
potamos. These Acarnanian Vlachs are by profession mostly
shepherds and still live in groups of families under the

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THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE VLACHS 207

patriarchal rule of a head shepherd. In one case, where the
head shepherd was dead, Weigand found them living under
a matriarchy exercised by his widow. The chief point of
interest about them is that excluding a few isolated families
who have settled in the towns they mark the southern limit
of the Vlach communities. It might be thought that since
Acarnania was known in medieval times as Little Vlachia in
contrast to Great Vlachia or Thessaly, that these Vlachs are
the descendants of the medieval population. But this is not
so, for Weigand has shown by the study of their language and
folk songs that they are Farsherots and must have wandered
south from Albania. Further Lambridhis records that they
came from the village of Bitsikopulo in the district of Paleo-
poghoni in Northern Epirus about the year 1840.

Far to the north of Suroveli and about the sources of the
Aspropotamos is another group of villages inhabited by
Vlachs. These, the most southern of the Pindus Vlachs, are
distinct in origin and dialect from their Farsherot kinsfolk
lower down the river and are commonly known as the Aspro-
potamos Vlachs. The villages actually situated in the Aspro-
potamos valley are neither large nor numerous, but they
join an extensive group that reaches northward to Metsovo
and spreads widely to east and west over the higher slopes of
Pindus. At present there seems to be no real distinction
between the villages in the river valle}^ and those outside it,
but it is not impossible that some distinction once existed.
The name " Aspropotamite " is often used as if it denoted a
definite class and Leake has recorded that for purposes of
grazing there was a well-defined boundary between the Aspro-
potamos valley and the pastures towards Yannina. Treating
however the district as one, the chief villages are, in the valley
itself Gardista or Gardhiki and Halik'i, the latter at the source
of the river ; Kalarites or Kalarl'i and Siraku on a tributary
of the river of Arta, and towards the Thessalian side Malakasi,
Kastania and Kornu or in Greek Krania. Gardista and
Halik'i are primarily shepherd villages and have little or no
history, but Kalarites and Siraku have in their day been
places of considerable importance. The position of the two

2o8 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

villages is alone sufficiently striking to attract attention.
They stand facing each other, one on either side of a narrow
mountain valley in the midst of country as wild and desolate
as any to be found in Greece ; their narrow streets are zigzag
paths worn out of the hill side and the topmost houses in
Kalarites rise several hundred feet above the lower quarters
of the village. Leake and Pouqueville, who both travelled
in this district in the early years of the nineteenth century,
have left much valuable information as to its past history as
well as its condition at that time. According to a tradition pre-
valent in Kalarites at the time of Leake's visit, the Vlachs had
only been settled in that part of Pindus up tothat time for a space
of two hundred and fifty years. This if true would place the
date of their first settlements in the sixteenth century. Since the
adjacent country is not rich this date may perhaps be defended
on the theory that they were not driven to live in the less fertile
parts until after the Turkish conquest. On the other hand
since it is known that Vlachs were at Metsovo, which is only a
few hours off, at a considerably earlier date, it seems far
more probable that this tradition only refers to the beginning
of permanent villages. A local saying quoted by Leake gives
an idea of the early state of the district : " Velitsa is a
fortress, Matsuki a town, Kalarites an outlying quarter of the
town and Siraku five houses."

By the nineteenth century however this saying no longer
held good ; Matsuki had only twenty-five houses and Siraku
and Kalarites with five hundred houses each had a total popu-
lation of some five or six thousand, besides several hundreds
engaged in business elsewhere. This striking change, as in
the case of Metsovo, was due to the rise of a large foreign
trade which was mainly carried on through Yannina ; and
as an example of commercial enterprise at this time it may be
mentioned that merchants of Kalarites were employing Greek
boats from Ghalaxidhi to ship their goods to avoid being
dependent on foreign craft. Besides the advantages of a
large trade Kalarites like many of the neighbouring villages
was spared the extortions of a local governor by paying dues
direct to the Valide Sultan. After 1800 however both these

THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE VLACHS 209

advantages soon disappeared, the trade failed and Ali Pasha
of Yannina felt himself strong enough to extort money im-
partially from all villages alike. The annual fees from
Kalarites were gi^aduaUy increased from 14,000 up to 45,000
piastres, and for permission to have church bells a sum of
15,000 was exacted. At the independence of Greece several
of the inhabitants moved into the new kingdom, and the
population decreased. The new Graeco-Turkish frontier in 1881
followed the line of the river and Kalarites became Greek, but
Siraku remained Turkish. This caused a further decline in
prosperity as it interfered with such trade as still remained.
Many families from both villages have now settled in various
towns in Greece, and have severed all connection with their
former homes. The recent change in the frontier however
may increase the prosperity of both villages. Zalakostas one
of the best-known poets of ]\Iodern Greece was a native of
Siraku. Malakasi, which is on the main route leading from
Epirus into Thessaly, is perhaps one of the oldest of the Vlach
villages on Pindus ; it occurs in the legend of the founding
of Metsovo by Floka, and the Malakasians are mentioned
several times in the Chronicle of Epirus. This need not
however imply the existence of a proper village. As might
be guessed from its position Malakasi has undergone experiences
similar to Kalarites, but always on a smaller scale. Pouque-
ville estimates its population at about five hundred families,
but in recent years it has sunk to nearly half that number.
Kastania and Kornu are largely shepherd villages, and like
all in the hill districts near the frontier have had ample ex-
perience of brigandage.

In the Thessalian plains there are large Vlach colonies in
many of the towns and villages, but only a few small hamlets
in which the population is exclusively Vlach. All the Vlachs
in the Thessalian plains, whether now permanently settled or
not, seem to have been until recent times only winter visitants ;
most come from Samarina, Avdhela, Perivoli and the other
villages on Northern Pindus and so need no further description.
In Southern Thessaly however in Almiros and in a few hamlets
not far away the Vlachs are Farsherots. Their home village

210 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

is Pleasa, and until 1881 when the frontier was changed most
used to return there each summer, but after that date some
settled permanently in Thessah' and others found new winter
quarters farther north at Vlakhoyianni.

To the north of Thessaly and in what was till recently
Turkish territory, the next Vlach district is on the slopes of
Mt. Olympus. Here there are three villages Vlaho-Livadhi,
Kokinoplo and Fteri. Vlaho-Livadhi the largest, though half
its former size, has still in summer some three thousand
inhabitants. The Olympus Vlachs, as their dialect shows,
have mixed with Greeks for longer than most of the Vlachs on
Pindus ; many have left their mountain homes and have
settled in Elassona, Katerini and Serfije ; others have moved
northwards to Salonica and in fact of the Hellenic population
in Salonica to-day many in origin are from the Vlach villages
on Olympus.

To the north of the Haliakmon and on the hills that form
the watershed between it and Lake Ostrovo are two separate
groups of Vlachs ; one in the east around Verria and one to
west that includes Vlaho-Klisura on the hills to the east of
Kastoria. To the north of this second group is a third con-
taining Neveska, Belkamen, and Pisoderi.

It has already been noticed in connection with Avdhela
and Samarina that early in the nineteenth century a number
of Avdheliats led by Badraleksi abandoned their homes on
Pindus and settled on the hills by Verria (Plate XXIII).
They were joined by detachments from Perivoli and Samarina,
especially by the Bdtutsi from the latter village and their
numbers were increased by a small band of Farsherots. This
movement was the beginning of all the Vlach settlements in
the hill district south of Verria, where the chief villages are
Sella and Ksirolivadi. Sella is divided into an upper village,
which is the Farsherot settlement, and a lower one the site of
Badraleksi's original encampment. This and the fact that
the village is still rented as a chiftlik and is not freehold
are obvious indications that the Vlachs are newcomers to the
hills of this region. They say that Sella was first colonised
in 1815, but that in 1821 the upper village was sacked and

PLATE XXIII

THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE VLACHS 211

thereupon the Samarina families migrated to Niausta. Ksiro-
livadi, unhke Sella, is an old inhabited site, though it is com-
paratively recent as a Vlach village. Formerly it was in-
habited by Greeks who grew flax and r\^e, but about 1819 it was
totally destroyed in a raid of Albanians or Turks. This date,
which we were given in the village, may be too late, since
none of the tombstones in the old Greek churchyard bear
a later date than 1780. At all events its position on the old
paved Turkish high road from Verria to Kozhani and Yannina
must have rendered it very accessible to marauders. The
present village is also rented by its Vlach inhabitants as a
chiftlik and like Sella is inhabited only in the summer. A
third village Doliani is more recent than either and was started
by a number of nationalist Vlachs not so long ago as a per-
manent village to avoid intercourse with Hellenism and Greek
education. They first purchased the land which was a chiftlik
and then procured an architect to draw up plans for a model
village. A large school has been built and a church, and the
land of the village site divided into plots each large enough
for a house and a small garden. The village lives by sheep
rearing, timber cutting and agriculture, for which Turks from
the Koniari villages in the plains of Kozhani and Kailar were
being employed. All the land belongs to the community
which receives the rent for pasture and arable land and lets
out the right of cutting timber. When the timber in one
area has been cut, the community takes care that it shall
be replanted or else shut up and the trees allowed to grow
again naturally. Thus the village was gradually forming a
fund for its own general purposes aided hy gifts of money
from natives working in America. They were thinking, if
their scheme succeeded, of buying yet another chiftlik and
founding a similar Vlach colony. In addition to this the
community was hoping that some day it would be able to
maintain its school and church by itself without any help
from the Roumanian propaganda. The only condition laid
down for an inhabitant of the village was that he should be
a Vlach of the right political faith. By 191 1 the village had
made an excellent start and was increasing in size and pros-

2T2 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

perity, but its future is now most problematical. But, what-
ever happens, it has the unique distinction of having been
designed according to a plan and on a kind of communistic
scheme. The only other Vlach village in these hills is
Gramatikova which is a Farsherot settlement. Verria itself
besides being the winter home of most of the Vlachs of Sella
and Ksirolivadi, has a sir.all permanent Vlach population
mainly engaged in trade especially in the merchanting of
the cheeses made in the hill villages. Besides Vlachs the
town contains a large Greek population, a ghetto of Spanish
Jews (Plate XXH 2), many Turks and some Bulgarians. Its
chief feature is perhaps its excessive number of churches of
which there are said to be seventy-two. Many of the smaller
houses are grouped together in walled compounds, in most
of which there is a small church. It is in these compounds
that the nomad Vlach famihes from Sella and Ksirolivadi
spend the winter, hiring them en bloc from the Turkish
landlords.

To the west of the hills of Verria and beyond the plain of
Kailar we come to another big range of hills which gives
shelter to several Vlach villages. These which we may call
the Klisura group lie on the ethnological boundary of Greek
and Bulgarian. This group contains four villages, Klisura or
Vlaho-Klisura, Blatsa, Pipilishte and Shishani, and in addition
there are several Vlach families at Selitsa and in the town of
Shatishta which contains many Samariniats. Shishani and
Blatsa are now almost entirely hellenized and both these
villages seem from the first to have been partly Greek. Pipil-
ishte is said to be purely Vlach, but in politics is Greek.
Shishani, though now small, must once have been an im-
portant place because the full title of the Bishop of Shatishta
is " His Holiness of Shishani and Shatishta." At present
Klisura with some three thousand inhabitants has been for
a long time the largest purely Vlach village in this district.
It stands perched on the steep hill side at the top of the pass
on the high road from Kailar to Kastoria. The road is one
of the best in Macedonia and this is of great importance for
Klisura which makes its livelihood mainly by trade. The

THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE VLACHS 213

houses are large and indicate considerable prosperity in the
past, though as usual there has been a decline in recent years.
There is another group round Neveska a large and prosperous
Vlach village four hours north of Klisura and situated at a
higher elevation and commanding a more extensive view.
The position of Neveska (Plate XXIV) amongst the mountain
meadows and woods coupled with its magnificent outlook
over the plains of Kailar and Monastir with their lakes has
a wide reputation and is popularly supposed to rank second
to Samarina alone. The inhabitants of this group of villages
are not nomadic, although many go abroad to make their
fortunes as merchants in Egypt and Servia. The houses
though large and roomy are built more closely together, and
gardens are not as common as in the Pindus villages. In
the better houses in both Klisura and Neveska a curious
local method of wall decoration can be seen. The upper
part of the walls, which are as a rule covered with plain white-
wash, are ornamented with a frieze of Greek gods and god-
desses about three feet high painted in monochrome blue.
The designs and execution are rude and of no artistic merit,
but merely interesting. North of Neveska lie three more
villages Pisoderi, Belkamen and Negovani which have all
been settled in the last hundred years by Farsherots. Only
the first is purely Vlach, for the others also contain a con-
siderable Albanian population.

To the west of these again and beyond the upper waters
of the Haliakmon come the villages of northern Pindus between
Samarina and Metsovo and the Zaghori which have been
described in a previous chapter. But at the extreme northern
end of Pindus there are a few Vlach villages on the slopes of
Mount Gramos which lie near the point where the ethnographic
boundaries between Greeks, Bulgarians and Albanians meet.
The most important of these are Gramosti and Densko which
is about six hours north of Furka. These villages are mainly
inhabited by shepherds and muleteers and also do some trade
in timber. They are nomadic and many of them spend the
winter at Hrupishta. With them we might group the villages
like Nikolitsa and Linotopi which are no longer inhabited by

214 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

Vlachs. They were however in the eighteenth century before
their ruin at the hands of the Albanians very flourishing and
widely famous. Their inhabitants are now scattered far and
wide ; for instance there are Gramosteani to be found amongst
the glens of Rhodope in Thrace and families from Densko
may be met at Aliphaklar in the plain of A3da in Thessaly.
Adjoining the Gramos group to the north comes another block
of Vlachs who centre about the large Albanian town of Kortsha.
This block falls into two divisions. One lies to the east of
Kortsha and contains the villages such as Pleasa, Morava and
Stropan mainly inhabited by Farsherots who are shepherds
and muleteers, and in addition the few families settled in the
mixed Bulgar- Albanian town of Biklishta. These Farsherots
are apparently newcomers and do not seem to have been settled
in this district for more than two hundred years. Still as we
have seen Pleasa itself has sent forth colonies, as instanced
by the Pleasa Farsherots at Almiros in South Thessaly. This
shows how ineradicable the spirit of wandering is in the Vlachs.
In Kortsha itself there is a considerable Vlach colony mainly
composed of Farsherots from Pleasa and its neighbourhood, but
there are several families from Muskopol'e who are very much
under Greek influence and a few from the Gramos district. The
other division of the Vlachs in this region lies about Muskopol'e
and Shipiska which in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries
were large and flourishing towns. Of the two Muskopol'e, the
Plain of Musk, was the larger and the most renowned, for it was
the great commercial centre for Central Albania and Upper
Macedonia and its merchants had branch houses in Venice,
Vienna and Buda-Pest, and like their kinsfolk beyond the
Danube frequented the great fair of Leipzig. The wealthy
Greek colony in Vienna was largely composed of Vlachs from
Muskopol'e and elsewhere, for example Leake remarks that at
Shatishta and Selitsa German was commonly known because
of trade connections. Locally it is believed that the town once
contained eight or ten thousand houses and a population of
about sixty thousand souls. These figures Weigand is inclined
to credit, but Leake was more sceptical. As the traveller
to-day can see from the extensive ruins amidst the meadows

THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE VLACHS 215

that surround the present village on all sides it was once much
larger and in size easily surpassed any other Vlach town. So
if we assume that the local estimates of its former population
are thrice as great as they should be, we can put its inhabitants
at twenty thousand without any danger of being unduly
credulous. Leake who passed through the place in 1805 says
its prosperity which was at its height about a hundred years
before, had then been declining for the last seventy years.
This statement seems to be on the whole correct. MuskopoFe
possesses many churches most of which now stand isolated
among the stone strewn hayfields that once were busy
parishes, and on the slope of the hills about half an hour to the
north lies the monastery of Muskopol'e dedicated to St John
the Baptist. The monastery church was built in 1632 and
the majority of the churches in the town date between 1700
and 1760. So if the building of churches is a sign of prosperity
then Muskopofe flourished most between 1650 and 17.50.
In the monastery there is a historical note book, locally
known as a codex. It was begun in 1773, and written in
the same hand as this date are notes of various events
from the great rain of ash all over Rumeli in 1631 down
to 1754. The unknown historian dates the flourishing period
of Muskopol'e to the seventeenth century, and then gives
several rescripts relating to the monastery issued by the
Patriarchs of Achrida Ignatios, Gregory, Raphael, and
Phflotheos between 1693 and 1718. The latest patriarch
mentioned is Joseph (1746-1749). The next date is 1780
and by a different hand, and on the flyleaf is written in an
attempt at classical Greek, " Muskopol'e, Muskopol'e, where
is thy beauty ? Where is the fair form that thou hadst in
the seventeenth century ? The most accursed of men have
wrought my destruction. May the Lord give thee back
thy former beauty through the intercession of the Holy
Baptist."

These dates all agree with tradition which places the first
sack of Muskopol'e by Albanians in 1769 and the second in
1788. Finally the harsh rule of Ali Pasha brought about its
complete ruin and its inhabitants were dispersed throughout

2i6 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

the Balkans. To-day it is a small village occup3dng the
kernel of the old town and inhabited partly by Albanians
and partly by Vlachs, some of whom are true natives and
others Farsherots. Even in the days of its greatness there
was probably a considerable Farsherot element in the popula-
tion, which is recorded in local tradition and accepted by
Weigand on philological grounds. The Geography of the
Thessalian monks Daniel and Gregory published at Vienna
in 1791 says that it had much wealth, twelve kinds of trades,
a good and famous school, a printing press and was in a word
adorned with all the beauties of a European cit}^ The
printing press was managed by a monk called Gregory who
published religious books, of which ten are known, and was
renowned as one of the earliest presses in European Turkey.
To-day no sign of the press, either of type or machinery
survives, and it might reasonably be doubted whether the
press ever existed there at all, since no European traveller
ever saw it, for it is possible that the books were printed in
Constantinople, Venice, Vienna or some similar place for
Muskopore. Local tradition is not always to be trusted
and the point can only be decided by an examination of all
the books bearing the imprint Muskopol'e. But the town
was justly famous as a seat of Greek learning and education,
loasaph a well known patriarch of Achrida, to whom the
wealthy Vlach merchants gave the golden mitre made in
Venice and now preserved in the Cathedral of St Clement
at Okhridha, was a native of the town, and so also Kavalliotis,
Daniel, and Boyadzhi who compiled Vlach and Albanian
lexicons and grammars to further the spread of Hellenism.

The history of Shipiska is in every respect similar to that
of its neighbour Muskopol'e. These two towns with Nikolitsa
and Linotopi were companions in prosperity and in misfortune,
and one may safely say that no Vlach villages ever before or
since have reached such a pitch of material greatness. Their
wealth and fame are known all over the Balkans, and their
ruin is proverbial, for Vlach songs still tell how neither their
riches nor their education could save them from the Albanians
when they marched to set their foot upon them.

PLATE XXIV

THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE VLACHS 217

To the north of the plain of Kortsha is the well known
town of Okhridha, to use the Greek name, built on a rocky
peninsula jutting out into the north-east corner of the lake
of the same name. The lake is renowned through the whole
region ; local statisticians say it is twenty hours in circum-
ference, over two hundred metres deep and possesses eighteen
kinds of fish of which the salmon trout are known throughout
Macedonia. In summ.er too the country produces three kinds
of cherries, yellow, red and black, the last being most excellent.
All round the lake stand steep limestone mountains and
these naturally are the haunts of Vlachs. Hidden among the
wild Albanian mountains to the south-west of the lake is a
small group of Vlach villages of which Lunka and Grabovo
are the largest. To-day they are very small and miserable,
but in days gone by were much larger till they fell under
the same curse as Muskopol'e, and so their inhabitants are
to be found almost everywhere, but at home. At the north
end of the lake where the Black Drin starts on its course to
the Adriatic in Struga and Beala are Vlach colonies principally
composed of Farsherots living amongst Albanians and Bulgars.
In Okhridha too there is a large Vlach element all of whom
with the exception of two families are said to be nationalists.
The Okhridha Vlachs came from Lunka, Nikolitsa and
Linotopi at the time of their ruin, and now many of them
have wandered still further afield and their places in the
Vlach colony have been filled by Farsherots. To the east
of Okhridha on the hills that cut it off from Resna and the
basin of Lake Presba is Istok where the Perivoliats of Toivash
and Suphlari have their summer homes. Near them on the
same hills is a large Farsherot colon}'^ at the village of Ilino.
In Resna itself there are a hundred or more Vlach families
from Muskopore and in the neighbouring village of Yankovets
are forty more ; all these came after the destruction of their
mountain home. About the neighbourhood too there are
small colonies of Farsherots to be found as for instance at
Levareka a little to the north. But like Okhridha the
population of Resna is overwhelmingly Bulgarian with a
certain Turkish and Albanian element.

2i8 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

East of Resna and between it and Monastir, which the
Vlachs call Bitule, lies another large group of Vlach villages to
which we may add Krushevo and the Vlach colony in Monastir.
This group can be divided into two, one containing the two
westernmost villages of Molovishte and Gopesh, and the other
Magarova, Tarnova, Nizhopoli, Krushevo and Monastir. The
latter may be dealt with first. Magarova, Tarnova and Niz-
hopoli are pure Vlach villages with very few Bulgarian or
Albanian families living among them. They are all three of
quite modern origin for their first Inhabitants were refugees
from Gramosti, Muskopol'e, Linotopi, Nikolitsa, and Biskuki,
and in Nizhopoli are some Farsherots. Since each family still
remembers from what village their ancestors came it is clear
that these Vlach colonies are not much over a century old. It
is the same with Krushevo which was at first a purely Vlach
town founded by refugees from Metsovo, Linotopi, and Niko-
litsa who bought a small chiftlik and by their industry and
keenness in trade have made it a large town. To-day there is a
considerable Bulgar element in its population and in consequence
it suffered in the rising of 1903. It is also the seat of the Greek
bishop of Okhridha and Presba, who now that his proper diocese
has almost entirely gone over to the Exarchate, resides here
among the hellenist Vlachs. Similarly the Vlachs of Monastir
are descendants of former inhabitants of Muskopol'e, Linotopi
and Nikolitsa who fled east to escape the Albanian terror. They
are no inconsiderable part of the population of Monastir, and
form with patriarchist Bulgars and Albanians the main strength
of the Greek party for pure Greeks are few and far between.
Monastir also contains a large colony of Spanish Jews, and a
considerable number of Albanians and Turks. If the Albanians
are Mohammedans it is very difficult to separate them, for
the Turk like the Greek always confuses religion and nationality.

In contrast to this division of the Vlach inhabitants of the
district are the villages of Molovishte and Gopesh. The latter
is perched in a fine open situation on a wooded hill side on the
route of the old road from Elbasan through Okhridha to
Perlepe. Molovishte on the other hand is hidden in a ravine at
the foot of Mount Peristeri. Both villages admit that they

THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE VLACHS 219

received detachments of refugees from Furka, Nikolitsa,
Neveska and Muskopore, but both alike assert that they have
been in existence for at least three hundred years. Molovishte
says it was once lower do\vn the ravine near Kazhani on the
Monastir-Okhridha road, and Gopesh believes that its first
founders came from Nunte in the Meglen long before Muskopol'e
suffered for its pride. The dialect spoken by them confirms in
a way their traditions. Both villages have dialectic peculiari-
ties which separate them from Magarova or Monastir and these
peculiarities they share with the Meglen Vlachs. This does
not necessarily mean that they have the same origin as the
Meglen folk, though this is possible. The Meglen villages
have some linguistic traits in common with the Roumanians
from beyond the Danube and like them have come more in
contact with Slavs. On the other hand the Vlachs of Pindus
and the south live on the borders of three races, Albanians,
Bulgars and Greeks, and so one would naturally expect the
Slav influence on their pronunciation to be less strongly
marked than in the case of the people of Gopesh, Molovishte
or the Meglen who live as isolated units in a Slavonic sea.
Thus the peculiarities of the dialect of these two villages may
only indicate that they have occupied their present habitations
for a very long time, and so naturally Slavonic influence has
made itself felt, for the men in this region all talk Bulgarian
as well as their mother tongue. All the Vlach villages just
mentioned are now declining in numbers, for political troubles
and the consequent injury to trade have made many emigrate
to Bulgaria, America or elsewhere in search of work and a
good livelihood.

To the north and north-east of Monastir there are no purely
Vlach villages, but every towii of importance such as Perlepe,
Veles, Prizrend, Ipek, or Uskub contains a Vlach colony com-
posed of immigrants from the west and south-west.

To the north-west of Salonica and west of the town of
G'evg'eli which is on the Salonica-Nish railway, the small hill
district now known as the Meglen, but formerly called Mog-
lenia, lies among the Karadhzova mountains, It divides into

220 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

two halves, Bulgar-Meglen to the west, and Vlacho-Meglen to
the east. The Meglen Vlachs are in several ways quite distinct
from all others in the Balkans. They alone of all the Vlachs
use the term Vlach of themselves or their language, for the
others without exception call themselves by the proud name
of Arumani or Romans. The dialect of the Meglen is so
different that when first heard it is almost unintelligible ;
some of them belong to the Moslem faith, and nearly all,
unlike their kinsfolk of the south-west, are devoted to agri-
culture and are not traders or craftsmen. The population of
Vlacho-Meglen amounts to just over fourteen thousand, and
is distributed among eleven villages of which L'umnitsa is the
largest. The westernmost village Nunte is Mohammedan,
though till about a hundred years ago it was christian, and a
church and a ruined monastery still exist to show that they
have changed their faith. The tale goes that the people tired
of Turkish oppression decided with the bishop — Nunte boasts
that it was once the seat of a bishop — and priests at their head
to embrace the religion of the Turks their masters in hopes
of better treatment. Besides the eleven villages of the true
Meglen Vlachs, there is one Livadhi which serves as a summer
residence for shepherd Vlachs from Gramosti who spend the
winter in the plains be.tween Yenija and Salonica. They
however keep themselves aloof from the Meglen folk, for they
consider themselves far superior to agriculturists. As might
be expected from their environment the Meglen Vlachs are
strongly under Bulgarian influence, and when Weigand visited
the district in 1889 two villages in particular, Barovitsa and
Koinsko, were rapidly changing from Vlach to Bulgarian.
Greek influence, which had been decreasing, was confined to
the schools and churches. Recently many of the nationalists,
who are said to be in the majority in this region, have placed
themselves under the Exarch. The Meglen Vlachs more than
many others seem to retain their national costume ; the men
wear a form of tsipune, and the women's dress, though it has
become rather Bulgarian in appearance, has been little
affected by European stuffs and fashions. Thus at the village
dances the fair sex of the Meglen make a brave show with

THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE VLACHS 321

their quaintly decorated aprons and large silver buckles of
local manufacture.

To the east and north-east of Salonica there are many
Vlachs to be found, but there are few if any villages inhabited
by them alone. All these Vlachs are refugees from Vlaho-
Livadhi, Neveska, Klisura, Pindus, Gramosti, or the Mnsko-
pol'e district, and have settled amongst a population that is
in the main Slav, for, where there is any Greek element at all,
it is the Vlachs themseh^es who form no inconsiderable portion
of it. Seres is the most southerh^ town in this region which
has a \Tach colony, and this is said to number as many as
two thousand souls, although there may be many more, for
they are nearly all almost completely hellenized. The progress
of hellenization with the consequent absorption of the Vlachs
among the Greeks makes it excessively difficult to distinguish
those of Vlach origin and those who are not. Nevrekop,
Demir Hissar, Melenik and Poroi are other towns in this
district where Vlachs are to be found and like their fellows
in Seres they are subject to hellenization, and are mainly
refugees from the south-west and Pindus, for some of them came
originally from Baieasa. As purely Vlach villages Weigand
quotes Ramna to the north of Lake Butkovo, Buzhdova and
Lopova north of Melenik, and the summer village of Baba
Ali to the north of Seres. Yet farther to the north is Upper
Dzhumaia with a considerable Vlach colony many of whom
are nationalists. In this neighbourhood all about the ravines
and ridges of Rhodope and its outl^ang ranges many en-
campments of Vlach shepherds exist. Weigand reckons
the total number of such hamlets of huts at forty-two and
according to him they have all wandered eastwards from
Gramosti. It is interesting to note that these shepherds and
their womenfolk have still preserved the Vlach national dress
so characteristic of their homeland. They are of course
nomads and many of them winter in the plains about Kum-
anovo and Egri Palanka. In Bulgaria the most important
colony is in Sofia itself where half the trade is said to be in
Vlach hands, the other half being in the hands of Spanish
Jews. There are also Vlach colonies in other Bulgarian towns

222 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

such as Tatar Bazar jik and Philippopolis and it is notice-
able that Bulgarian commercial establishments, such as the
Bulgarian National Bank, recruit their staff among the boys
who have been trained in the Roumanian Commercial School
at Salonica. The main point of the interest of the Vlach
colon}^ in Sofia is that it is the result of what might be called
secondary migration. The Vlachs of Sofia have mostly come
from Monastir, Krushevo and Magarova during the last thirty
years, and as we have seen the bulk of the Vlachs of the
Monastir district were refugees from Pindus, Gramos or
MuskopoFe. The most easterly Vlach colony of which we
have heard, apart from that at Constantinople, is at Sufli on
the railway a little to the south of Dimotika where a band of
wanderers from Laka have settled. In Servia there are Vlachs
in Nish, Belgrade, Vrania and other towns and in summer a
number of shepherd families are to be found close to Nish.
The total number of Vlachs in Bulgaria and Servia is not
great and at present at least there is a clear distinction between
the Vlachs of the south and the Roumanians proper, some
of whom Hve south of the Danube in the districts of Timok
and Viddin. The two divisions overlap a little, but speaking
generally one may say that north of Nish and Sofia are
Roumanians and south of it are Vlachs.

From the Vlachs in Servia, Bulgaria, East Macedonia and
Thrace we may turn to those in the west of the peninsula, in
Epirus, Albania and Dalmatia on the Adriatic slope. A few
of these have already been noted, since the Zaghori villages are
strictly speaking in Epirus, and Kortsha and MuskopoFe are
more in Albania than not. All of these however are on the
central line of mountains that divides the peninsula, rather
than definitely west of it like the settlements that now concern
us. There are some Vlachs permanently settled in Yannina,
and a large part of the Greek population there is almost
certainly of Vlach origin ; there are also a few families in Preveza
and other towns ; but apart from these and the Zaghori villages
there are no Vlachs in Epirus except the families who come
there only in winter from Siraku and other Pindus villages.
In Albania however there are two definite groups. A

THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE VLACHS 223

southern one due west of Mount Gramos on the hills which
lie to the north of Premeti between the rivers Aous and Osum,
and a northern group just to the west of Berat. The southern
one contains only four or five small villages, including Frasheri
from which the Farsherots take their name. By Berat there
are thirty-eight villages or hamlets, all of small size, with a
total population in winter of perhaps ten thousand, but in
summer considerably less. In the towns such as Avlona, Elbasan
and Durazzo there is also a Vlach population. Conditions of
life in Albania are more primitive than elsewhere, the villages
are smaller and more scattered, and the nomadic population
larger. In many parts of the hills therefore there are probably
shepherd Vlachs who are not included in either of these two
groups of villages. To the north of Albania along the Adriatic
coast a Vlach population once existed ; several Vlach place
names are recorded in Sir Arthur Evans' papers on Illyria,
an invaluable work for Dalmatian ethnology. Ragusa itself
contained a large Vlach element and Dalmatia was the home
of the Morlachs or Black Vlachs. In Istria at the present
day a Vlach dialect is spoken, but between Istria and Albania
it has now ceased, and the Istrian Vlachs, who like the Meglen
call themselves Vlachs, are widely separated from those in
Balkan peninsular proper.

The present distribution and condition of the ATachs
suggest numerous points of interest. In the first place
it becomes clear that though many are now settled in the
towns and villages on the plains as traders, yet as a distinct
race the Vlachs still belong to the hills. The exclusively
Vlach villages are all situated in or near the hills, and the
Vlachs elsewhere are colonists fast losing their nationality.
Usually, if not always, it is the upper village that is regarded
as the home of those who migrate, and, while their houses in
the hills and the land that surrounds them are usually their
own, their houses in the plains are normally rented. Few of
the hill villages in the present form are however of any antiquity
and some like Doliani, Krushevo, Belkamen and Dzhumaia
are the result of quite modern migrations ; most like the
Pindus village lay claim to having been founded by the union

224 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

of several shepherd encampments about two hundred years
ago. The few villages that are definitely older are like Gopesh,
Metso\^o, Kalarites and Muskopore are situated on or near
natural trade routes. The recent date of the Vlach villages
is not only guaranteed by tradition, it can be proved in several
ways by the lack of any old buildings and by the deeply
rooted prejudice against the builder's trade. We may say
then with fair certainty that the Vlachs belong to the hills,
though their villages there are with some exceptions of recent
origin. The recent history of the Vlachs as a whole is like
that of the Pindus villages ; there has been a continual change
throughout from nomadism in the hills to a settled life in
trading villages near the passes in the plains. From time
to time this change has been accentuated ; in the eighteenth
century there was a great increase in trade ; Vlach merchants
were settled at Yannina, Metsovo and Kalarites were com-
mercial centres, MuskopoFe was at its most flourishing stage
and at the close of this period comes the formation of the
bulk of the Vlach colonies round Monastir and Seres. The
trade of the eighteenth century produced a great increase in
settled life ; it also had other effects, it brought the Vlachs
into prominence, but at the same time it helped towards
denationalisation. The Vlach on becoming a trader and
a permanent dweller in the towns came into close contact
with other races ; and a knowledge of Greek became essential
instead of a luxury, especially to those who settled in the
Greek towns. Hellenism was also helped by the power of the
Patriarchate which was at its height in the latter half of the
eighteenth century. In 1767 the Greek Patriarch with the aid
of the Turks had succeeded in suppressing Bulgarian, Serb and
Roumanian churches ; this too was the period of elementary
Greek reading books for the instruction of Albanians, Vlachs
and other. The closing years of the eighteenth century
were a period of storm and stress, trade declined generally not
merely in the south, and the prosperous Vlach villages such as
Metsovo, Vlaho-Livadhi, and Klisura all dwindled. The families
that left these villages, which were Vlach trading centres in
the hills, settled in the towns on the plains and became merged

THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE VLACHS 225

into the other races. Thus the decline like the rise of com-
merce has helped towards the disappearance of the Vlach
race, and Hellenism in the Balkans which in every other
race has rapidly decreased of late, among the Vlachs alone has
made progress.

The fortunes of the Vlachs from the time of the Turkish
conquest, when they submitted and in many places secured
the privilege of being under the Valide Sultan, up to the
eighteenth century are almost impossible to ascertain in detail.
Local tradition does not really begin till later, and outside
tradition there are few or no surviving records. The fifteenth,
sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries are therefore almost a
complete blank, and the history of the Vlachs before that
period forms a separate subject. It may however be safely
assumed that the change from a wandering to a fixed life was
a continuous process, and that the early tales of Metsovo and
Samarina, if not in detail true, are so in their main outlines.

CHAPTER XI
THE VLACH LANGUAGE

'H yKai(T(Ta jxas dvai fiia fieyaXr] (raXdra.

Our language is one great salad.

Cretan Saying

VLACH is a Latin language and a dialect of Roumanian,
but naturally owing to the isolation and dispersion of
those who speak it, it has remained in an undeveloped
condition and from time to time adopted many foreign words.
But although the adoption of foreign words may obscure the
language for those who have only a slight acquaintance with it,
for all that the grammar, which is the essential base of any
tongue, retains its true Latin character. Roumanian dialects
fall into the following groups : — the Roumanian of the king-
dom and Transilvania with many subdivisions, the Istrian
dialect, Meglen and lastly Vlach with its own subdivisions.
Some Roumanian philologists say that Vlach is in the con-
dition in which Roumanian proper probabl}/ was several
hundred years ago. Its isolation and the fact that it was
not reduced to writing have kept its syntax in a very simple
state. Like all Roumanian dialects Vlach has one great
peculiarity which marks it off from all other Romance lan-
guages. The article instead of being placed in front of the
noun is attached as a kind of sufhx at the end, and it is through
the declension of the suffixed article that the nouns them-
selves are declined. The article is of course derived from
the Latin ille, for example the Latin ilium vicinum becomes
in French and Italian le voisin and il vicino, but in Vlach
vitsinlu. This peculiarity in the position of the article the
Roumanian dialects have in common with two neighbouring

THE VLACH LANGUAGE 227

languages, Albanian and Bulgarian, and it also occurs in some
South Russian dialects, but elsewhere among Indo-European
tongues is found only in Scandinavian languages.

Owing to the fact that Vlach has never been written till
recently there is no literary language which can be said to be
generally known in all Vlach districts. Nor of course is there
any recognised convention of spelling as in other languages.
These circumstances make it very difhcult to give any account
of the tongue without straying into digressions about dialectic
tricks. In the following brief account of the structure of Vlach
we have attempted to set down the common forms which can-
not be described as peculiar to any one dialect, but the base
of our knowledge of the language is the dialect of Samarina.
At the end we have tried to show how the pronunciation and
vocabulary vary in the separate dialects where such can be
distinguished. In every case, for the sake of brevity, we
have not troubled to indicate all the exceptions and irregu-
larities, for Vlach grammar like every other has plenty of
these.

Phonetic Changes

As regards the vowel sounds it is necessary to bear in mind
that the general tendency of Vlach is in favour of the following
changes :

Unaccented 0 (oa) and e {ea) become u and?,
Unaccented u and i are dropped.
Unaccented a becomes a or a, except when initial,
Unaccented dor a are dropped.

This is well illustrated in the following verbs :

Infin. mkdre, Pres. ntdkii, Pret. nikai ;

Infin. kripdre, Pres. krepu, Imper. kredpd ;

Infin. skutedre, Pres. skotu, Pret. skodshu ;

Infin. bdtedre, Pres. bdtii, Pret. bdfiU ;

Infin. p{uyedre, Pres. potit, Pret. piui.

These changes naturally affect spoken Vlach very much.
The final i in conjunctions such as shi and si, in verbs and in

228 THE NO]\IADS OF THE BALKANS

pronouns like tsi, mi and I'i drops, and this in turn produces
other changes. Thus :

s becomes z before b as voi z beau, I want to drink,
before d as voi z dormu, I want to sleep,
before v as vine z veadd, he came to see,
before y as I'i dzdse z yind, he told him to come,
sh becomes zh before the same consonants,

z duse la hani zh bin, he went to the inn and drank,
kddzu zh d aklo, he fell from there too,
vin'u zh vidzui, I came and saw,
si should zh yine, he gets up and comes,
is becomes z before the same as,

z bdgai measa, I set the table for 5'ou,

z dedii Idna, I gave you the wool,

tsez vd, go (for dutsets vd).

z yine lata is, your father is coming to you.

Also / before d becomes v, thus we get vdzi for fudzi, he
went, and when the i and u of I'i, li and lu drop before a con-
sonant a sound varying between a and a is introduced before
the /, e.g.

dl' dzdse, he told him,

but before vowels a is not inserted and only the i drops, e.g.

/' adrd kartea, he wrote the letter for him.

As to final i and u, they are not pronounced when the

word is in the middle of a sentence, but only if it is at the end,

e.g.

ved kd easie giant, I see he is mad,

but easte glar^ u vedu, he is mad, I see it ; and

tora h'im fratsi, now we are brothers,

but vai h'im frats tora, we will be brothers now.

But final H and w are often retained after two consonants.

Before plunging into Vlach grammar it will be advisable
to give a short list of the principal phonetic changes that the
original Latin sounds have undergone. We have the change of

/ to r, hare for qiialem,

II to u, steaud for stellam,

rv to rb, korbti, for corvum,

net to mt, umtii for unctum,

pi, pe to k'i, k'e, k'inu for pimim, k'ale for pellem,

bi, be to g'i, g'ine for bene,

THE VLACH LANGUAGE 229

intervocalic b to v, avemii for habemus,

vi to yi, yinii for vinimi,

intervocalic v being dropped, nou for novum,

fi, fe to h'i, h'e, h'il'e for filiam, h'erbu for ferveo,

ti, te to ts, tutsi for toti, tsara for terram,

tionem to tshune, nigaishune for rogationem ,

di, de to (i^, dzdku for ^jco, dzatse for decern,

s to sA, shedu for sedeo, but not always,

sAz to s^^z, s/i/n« for scio,

^?, y^e to ^s, fafsd for faciem, dzatse for decern, tseard for ceram,

kt to />^, o/j^zi for octo,

As to /?5, /i'//5S(2 for fixit, frapsinu for fraximmi,

qua to /?«, ea/^a for equam, except in relatives, kdndu and

katii for quando and quantum,
qui, que to ^s?, /sz for ^i«'i, tsintsi for quinque,
gua to 6a, limbd for linguam,

gi, ge to i^^?;, ^^e, mardzine for marginem, dzeand for geiiam,
gn to mn, lemnu for lignum,
j to ^^A, dzhone for juvenem.

Genders

There are three genders, — MascuHne, Feminine and Neuter
as in Latin. As in the case of other Romance languages it
would perhaps be more correct to sa}^ that there is no Neuter
as a direct survival of Latin. The neuter nouns in the singular
have become assimilated to the masculine and in the plural to
the feminine. However in Vlach as in Italian a large number
of original neuter plurals have survived. Consequently for
the sake of simplicity we have preferred to treat the neuter as
a separate gender, though this inevitably leads to some
inconsistency.

The Formation of the Plural

All Masculine Nouns end in u, u or e according to their
Latin originals, and foreign words may end in u, i, a or 0, e.g.
oiiu (man) from homo, kdne (dog) from canis, udd (room) from
the Turkish oda, pitnipit (warden) the Greek gT/rpoTo?, pam-
pordzhi (steamer captain) from the Italian vapore with the
Turkish termination ji (e.g. draba, a cab ; drahaji, a cabman
and maraiigo (carpenter) from the Greek [jM^^ocyyoi.

230 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

The plural invariably ends in i ; even the plurals of foreign
words which usually form it by adding adzi to the stem end in i.
We have lupu (wolf) luk'i, tramvaidzhi (tram conductor)
tyamvaidzhadzi (from the English tramway through the Italian
with the Turkish termination ji and the plural ending adzi
adopted from Modern Greek which delights to use this, e.g.
ioprrj ioprdhzg, (BaffiXidg (3u(nXtd^sg) , udd udadzi, pitrupu pit-
rupadzl, niarango mararigadzi.

All Feminine Nouns end in a or ^ according to their Latin
derivation, jneasd (table) mensa, fatsd (face) fades, and foreign
words that are of the same gender, e.g. tin'ie (price) from the
Greek rifjjri, zanate (trade) from the Turkish sanat.

Nouns in a form the plural in e, e.g. kasd (house) kdse, and
those in e in i, e.g. parte (part) pdrtsi, politic (town) politii
(Greek 'Trokinia) , kimak'e (camp) kundk'i (Turkish qonaq).

In words ending in aud, if they are of Latin origin, the II
of the stem reappears in the plural, e.g. steaud (star) stealle
from Stella, but if they are foreign words, the plural is formed
in ei, e.g. kiikuveaud (owl) kukuvei from the Greek Kovzov^aia ;
but the two classes are sometimes confused and we get kuku-
veale, and mdsci (jaws) instead of mdsealle from maxillae.

Feminine nouns ending in md, which are really Greek
neuters, form their plurals as in Greek with a slight alteration,
e.g. mathimd (lesson) fuathimate for the Greek [jA0r][jjCi [jjci0f][jjccrci.

Dzud (day) dzdle (Latin dies) is quite irregular.

All Neuter Nouns end in u and make their plural in c, e.g.
leinnu (wood) leamne from lignum ligna ; but those of the Latin
third declension make the plural in iirc, e.g. k'eptu (breast)
k'epture for pectus pectora. This latter termination by false
analogy has become the usual form for the neuter plural, e.g.
loku lokure for locum loca (place) and yinu yinnre for vinum
vina (wine). It thus occurs in borrowed words, which are
made neuter,

as nomu nomure (Greek i/o/nor), law ;
and giisiu gusture (Italian gusto), taste.

In some cases it even occurs in masculine and feminine words,
e.g. lapte lapture (masc. from lac milk) and kale kdVure (fem.
from callis road) .

THE VLACH LANGUAGE 231

A few words still retain the true Latin form in their plurals :

omii oamin'i for homo homines,
sard surdre for soror sorores,
oaspe oaspitsi for hospes hospUes, and
kapu kapite for caput capita.

Then certain nouns implying relationship form the plural
in an'i or dn'i :

mumd mother, mumdn'i,

tatd father, tdtdn'i,

papa grandfather, pdpdn'i,

laid uncle, Idldn'i, and

aushu old man, aushdn'i, though aiishi also occurs.

This termination occurs as a plural form in some family
names :

Paka Pak'anl'i, the Paka's,

Yaka Yak'anl'i, the Yaka's,

Tsaknak'i Tsaknak'anVi, the Tsaknaki's, and

Dadal'ari DadaVavanl'i, the Dadal'ari's,

while the other usual form for the plural in family names is

adzi :

Lighura Lighuradzl'i, the Lighura's,
Pole FttVadzl'i, the Pole's.

These plurals in dn'i apparently correspond to the Old French
ace. sing, and nom. and ace. plur. in ain or ains, e.g. ante antain
aunt, Eve Evain, which is perhaps the Vulgar Latin termination
anes. This also occurs in Italian and Romansch and in all
three languages in exactly the same class of words as in Vlach.
One peculiarity of Vlach is that the final i of the plural
often affects the preceding consonant and changes it. This
of course applies to all masculine nouns except those which
make their plural with adzl or an'i. It also affects most
feminine nouns, but not all. The majority of the feminine
nouns end in a and so make the plural in e, but since the
general tendency in Vlach is to change unaccented e into i,
for most practical purposes the plural for them also ends in i.
The only words which this does not affect are those ending
with shd, e.g. moashd, the plural of which is always moashe, old

232 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

women. The consonants affected are many and we have the
change of

« to w', maud rndn'i (hand), ayiu an'i (year),

rn to «', Idkrimd Idkrin'i (tear), yermu yern'i (worm),

I to /', poald pol'i (apron), kalu kal'i (horse),

g to dz, tshorgd tshordzi (rug), largu Idrdzi (broad),

k to ts, hisearikd biseritsi (church), shoariku shoaritsi (mouse),

/ to ts, poartd portsi (door), bdrbatu bdrbatsi (man), but niveastd

niveaste (bride),
d to dz, grendd grendzi (tree trunk), but pravdd pravde (beast

of burden),
b to g', iarbd ierg'i (grass), albu alg'i (white), but limbd limbe

(tongue),
p to k' , groapd gvok'i (grave), lupu liik'i (wolf), but iseapd

tseape (onion),
/ to h' , bufu buh'i (owl),
V to y, gavii gayi (blind),

and even foreign words are not exempt, for we have

adete adetai, the Turkish ddet, custom,

kdrkliku kdrklitsi, the Turkish qirqliq, a forty para piece,

k'ibape k'ibdk'i, for the Turkish kebab, roast meat,

litkume lukun't, for the Turkish loqina, piece, lump,

psofu psoh'i, the Greek ■v//-o0toy, dead (of animals),

sklavu sklayi, the Greek uKkaf^os, slave or prisoner, and in

the singular
prukuk'ie, for the Greek TrpoKoni'i, progress.

Another characteristic featm^e of Vlach is that the radical
vowel of the stem can be affected by the following vowel of
the termination. Thus :

0 becomes oa, and
e becomes ea,

when followed by a, a or c, but they appear as simple vowels
if i or u follow. If final e has changed to i, the rule given is
observed.

This rule affects feminine nouns in the singular, e.g.

oard ori, hour ; oaie oi, sheep ;

seard seri, evening ; ml'eare ml'eri, woman ;

and neuter nouns in the plural, e.g.

kornu koarne, horn,
mern nieare, apple.

THE VLACH LANGUAGE 233

Also a becomes a if the next vowel was or is i, e.g.

karie kdrtsi, letter,
mdkare, mdkdri, food,
adunare adundri, meeting.

These last two words are of course infinitives used as nouns.
Foreign words too have to bow to this rule, and we have

livadhe Uvddzi, meadow, from the Greek Xei/3aSt,
kunak'e kundk'i, camp, from the Tuiicish qonaq.

These phonetic changes of vowels and consonants do not
affect nouns alone, but of course verbs as well, which will be
illustrated when we come to consider the conjugations.

The Article

The masculine article is lu for words in u, u, i, 0 and a,
and le for those in e, and the plural in all cases is I'i.

The feminine article is a with the plural le.

The neuter article is lu with the plural le.

The suffixed article affects to some extent the final vowel

of the word to which it is attached. Before a a drops, and

e is retained except when it follows

sh as kdmeashe kdmeasha (camiciam), shirt,
/' as fumeal'e fiimeal'a {familiam), family,
or a vowel as kleaie kleaia {clavem), key.

Before lu final ti and u disappear except after a vowel as
boulu (bovem ilium), the ox,

or two consonants as

okl'u okl'ulu (oculum ilium), the eye.

Before I'i i drops, omlu [homo ilium) oamin'l'i homines
illi) ; and before le i is retained and e becomes i, as

pdrtsile {partes illae) and measile (mensae illae).

Foreign words follow the same rules, e.g.

pitrupu pitiuphi (Greek, warden), yatni yatrulu (Greek, doctor),

and the final vowel, if accented, is retained before lu, as

paltolu (Italian, greatcoat),
k'iradzhilu (Turkish, muleteer), and
tsdruhdlu (Greek, cobbler).

234 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

The suffixed article is declined and thus the cases of the
nouns are formed, e.g.

mensam illatn dominum ilium fratrem ilium lignum ilium
S. Xom. Ace. measa domnulii fratile lemnulu

Gen. Dat. a measil'ei a domnulu a fratilui a lemnulu

P. Nom. Ace. tneasile domn'l'i fratsl'i leamnile

Gen. Dat. a measilor a domnilor a fratslor a leamnilor

It will be noticed that the genitive singular is formed
from the original dative. In the singular there is an alterna-
tive form of the genitive and dative in which the article is
suffixed to the preposition a and not to the noun, and this
also was a dative form originally, e.g.

illi piiellae illi domino illi fratri illi loco

ale feate alii domnu alii frate alu lokU

But this form is hardly ever used in the case of words
expressing inanimate objects, and when used as a genitive is
nearly always personal, e.g.

dulunidlu ale feate, the gii'l's coat,
kutsutlu alii furit, the robber's knife ;

but we have rare cases such as :

koada ale steaud, the star's tail (of a comet),
patlu ale yilie, the bottom of the glass.

Other cases if required are formed \\\i\\ the aid of pre-
positions, e.g.

di to make a genitive, gurd di asime, a mouth of silver ;
di la to make an ablative, di la pdldthiri, from the window ;
pri to make an emphatic accusative, mi mimdri pri mine,
he looked at me ;

but this last is probably due to Roumanian inffiience.

The Vocative is always the same as the unarticulated
nominative, e.g.

featd girl, fraie brother, lata father, fiishorii boy ;

but certain words implying relationship make the vocative
in 0, e.g.

lalo uncle, teto aunt, maiko mother ;

and this has been adopted from Bulgarian.

THE VLACH LANGUAGE 235

Only a few words still preserve the true Latin vocative
form, e.g.

vitsine neighbour, barbate husband, fuvtate blood brother,
krishtine christian, kusurine cousin.

Exceptions to any rule are the vocatives of

Dumnidzeu Dumnidzale God, Hristo Hristoase Christ.

Diminutives

These may be formed by the addition of the following
terminations :

iku, ikd as fitsJioru fitshoriku, little boy ; featd fitikd, little

girl;
Kshu, ushd as Kola Kulushu, little Nicholas ; kurkubetd

kurkubitushd, a little vegetable marrow ;
iishd apparently only feminine, as gurd guritshd, a pretty

little mouth ; yilie yilitshd, a pretty little glass ;
shoru apparently masculine only, k'inu k'inshoru, a nice

little pine ; bunii bunshoru, rather good ; loku lokshoru,

a nice little place.

Fitshoru boy, is itself really a diminutive of this last class
and is derived from the obsolete fetii, which would of course
be the masculine form oi featd girl.

An Albanian diminutive is zd, ndtheamdzd a very little.

Adjectives.

Adjectives are declined in all cases like the nouns. Those
in II decline thus :

s.

jNI. bunu

F. bund

N. bunu

p.

M. buni

F. bicne

N. bune

The adjective is of course not articulated unless it comes
before the noun or is turned into a noun itself by the addition
of the article, for instance one can say :

eu mttndriam biinlu a indreagdl'ei jumeal'e

or

eu mundriam bunlu a ftimeal'il'ei indreagd

I was considering the good of the whole family.

236 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

As a rule the adjective comes after the noun which it
quahties, e.g.

un kal bunu, a good horse ; una. kasd mare, a big house.
Adjectives in c have the same forms for all genders :

M. F. N. S. vearde P. verdzi green

mare mdri great, big

diiltse dultsi sweet

Adjectives in esku form thus :

S. M. yifiesku F. yifteashd N. yiftesku gipsy
P. M. yifteshti F. yifteshti N. yifteshti

Those that end in diphthongs are exceptions, for in the
feminine they are assimilated to the nouns in aud, e.g.

j\I. ardu

F. araiia

N. ardu

wrong

greu

greaud

greu

heavy

nou

noaud

nou

new

M. ardi

F. arale

N. arale

grei

greale

greale

noi

nale

nale

Laiu, black, follows the ordinary rule.
Adjectives of foreign origin decline thus :

S. M. hazo, fiikara F. hazoan'e, fukaroan'e mad, poor

P. M. hazadzi, fukaradzi F. hazoan'e, fukaroan'e

and this termination can also be used to form feminine nouns
in the case of foreign words, e.g.

vdsil'e king, vdsiloan'e queen ;

tshelnihu shepherd, tshelnikoan'e shepherdess.

TJic Comparison of Adjectives

The comparative is formed by placing ma more before
the positive, and the superlative by putting ma before the
articulated positive, e.g.

Inmti good, ma bunu better, ma hiinln tlie best.

An intensive comparative may be formed by the use of
ka or ninkd, e.g.

ha ma slabu or ninka iua slubu, much worse.

THE VLACH LANGUAGE 237

Adverbs

The only true adverbial form is g'inc well, the adverb of
hunu ; otherwise those formed from adjectives have the same
form as the unarticulated masculine singular.

The principal adverbs of time and place are :

aoa, aoatse here,

aklo there,

di supra, susii above,

ndundnt within,

ing'os below,

ndfoard out of doors,

aproape near,

napoi after,

ninkd still, again,

atumtsea then,

iora now,

asdns to-day,

mane to-morrow,

paimdne the day after to-morrow,

aieri yesterday,

aoaltari the other day,

dineavra just now.

Affirmatives and Negatives

Vlach has no proper words for yes and no. In the south
where Greek influence is strong nc and oh'i are used. In the
north nu is used for no, and ashitsi or ashi (lit. so) is used
for yes, though occasionally the Slavonic da is employed
through Roumanian influence.

Negatives and affirmatives can be qualified with fdrd di
altd certainly, and nakd or poate si h'ihd perhaps.

Numerals

The numerals from one to ten are :

unu, doi, trei, patrii, tsintsi, shasse, shapte, optu, noaud,

dzatse.
Eleven and twelve are usprddzatse and dosprddzatse, fifteen
tsisprddzatse and so on.

238 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

Twenty is yingitsi ; thirty, forty and the other tens up to
a hundred arc iredzdtse, patntdzdtse and so on, with
sheidzdtse for sixty and ohdzdtse for eighty.

A hundred is und sutd and a tliousand is und n'ile.

Twenty-one is usprdyingitsl and so on, but thirty-one is
iredzdtse imu and so witli forty-one, etc.

All numerals above ten take after them the preposition
di, e.g.

shapte oamin'i but iredzdtse di oi ; the only exception is yifigiist.

Pronouns

Perso:

nal Pronouns

Absolute.

With Verbs.

Nom,

, Ace.

Gen. Dat.

Nom.

Ace.

Gen. Dat.

First Pers. S.

eu, io

1, mine

a n'ia

eii

mi

n'i

P.

noi

a noaiid,

noi

noi

nd, nd

Second Pers. S.

tine

a tsdia

tine

ti

tsi, tsd, tsd

P.

voi

a voaiid

voi

voi

vd, vd

Third Pers. S.

M.

elu

a lui

elii

lu

I'i

F.

ea

a I'ei

ea

0, u

I'i

P.

M.

el'i

a lor

el'i

I'i

Id, Id

F.

eale

a lor

eale

li

Id, Id

For the third personal pronoun one can also use :

S. M. ndsu S. F. ndsd P. M. vdsM P. F. ndse

Possessive Pronouns

The possessive pronouns and pronominal adjectives can
either be independent or suffixed :
The independent forms arc —

S. Nom. Ace. Gen. Dat.

P. Nom. Ace. '

Gen. Dat

First Pers.

M.

amen, amelu amilui

amel'i

amilor

F.

amea

amil'ei

aineale

amilor

Second Pers.

M.

atdu

atdlui

atdi

atdlor

F.

ata

atdl'ei

atale

atdlor

Third Pers.

J\I.

a lui

a lui

F.

a I'ci

a I'ei

First Pers.

M.

anostrii

anostrii i

anoshtri

anostror

F.

anoastrd

anostrei

anoastre

anostror

Second Pers.

M.

avosiru

avostnii

avoshtri

avosiror

F.

avoastrd

avostrei

avoastre

avostror

Third Pers.

M.

F.

a lor

a lor

THE VLACH LANGUAGE

239

If a neuter is required the masculine form is used in the
singular and the feminine in the phiral, e.g.

loklu atdu, leamnile atale,

and so throughout.

The suffixed forms are as follows :

Nom. Ace.

Gen. Dat.

First Pers.

M.

11' 11, fatdn'u my father

n'ui, a tatdn'ui

F.

n'i, maikd n'i my mother

n'i, ale maikd n'i

An enclitic mu is also used with vocatives, e.g. maiko m ;
this is the Modern Greek enclitic possessive [JjOv.

Second Pers. M. tii or ts, kaplu is your head titi, a fraiitui

F. ta or ts, kasd ts your house tai or is, a maikdtai

Third Pers. M. su or I'i, tatd I'i his father sui or I'i, a fratisvii
F. sa or /'/, kasd I'i his house sai or I'i, a sorsai

First Pers. M. F. nd or nd indeclinable

Second Pers. M. F vd or vd indeclinable

Third Pers. M. F. Id or Id indeclinable

Demonstrative Pronouns

S. Nom. Ace. Gen. Dat.
This. M. aestu aesttii

F. aestd aestei

That. M. atseu, atsel atselui
F. atsea atsel'ei

'. Nom. Ace.

Gen. Dat,

aesti

aestor

aeste

aestor

atsei, atsel'i

atselor

atseale

atselor

Relative Pronouns

Nom. Ace.

Gen. Dat.

Sing.

M. F. kare

a kui

Plur.

M. F. kavi

Indeclinable, all genders and all cases, tsi.
For the genitive and dative plural of kare a periphrasis
with tsi is used, e.g.

oamin'l'i atsel'i tsi Id ded kartea vdzird,

those men to whom I gave the letter have gone.

Both kare and tsi are used as interrogatives as well :
kare easte who is it ?

240 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

Relative Adverbs

Of these we have kdndu when, kumu how, katse why,
iu where or whither and di in whence, all of which are used
interrogati\Tly as well.

To these we may perhaps add :

iuva nowhere,

aliura somewhere else, and

pide (Greek ttots') or vara oard never.

Indefinite Pronouns

S. Nom. Ace.

Gen. Dat.

P. Nom. Ace.

Gen. Dat.

One, some.

M. iiml

a vinui

ndskdntsi

a ndskdntor

F. una

a unci

ndskdnte

a ndskdntor

In the plural a unor is sometimes heard.

One, some. M. vdru, vrdnii a vvdmii
F. vara, vrdnd a vrdnei

This is nearly always negative, e.g.

nu vidzui vrdnii, I saw no one ;
but it can occasionally be positive :

am vdrd sutd di kal'i, I have about a hundred horses.

Kanu which is probably Greek in origin is similar in mean-
ing and declension.

Other. M. altu a altui alisi a altor

F. altd a altei alte a altor

The other. ]\I. alantu alantui alantsi alantor

F. alantd alantei alante alantor

Kdtu (quantum) how many, tutu (totmn) all, multu (multum)
many and ahdntu [aique or eccum tantum) as many as, all follow
the ordinary rules for adjectives.

Kathe each, and kdte one apiece, are indeclinable, e.g.

la kathe fiishor dcdu kdte una niishkdturd di pane,
I gave each boy one scrap of bread apiece.

We may also add here tsiva nothing, dipu altogether and
ndtheamd a little, e.g.

Nu am tsiva paradz dip, I have no money whatsoever,
Voi ndtheamd pane, I want a Uttlc bread.

THE VLACH LANGUAGE 241

Prepositions

In Vlach the prepositions may be either simple or com-
pound. The commonest simple prepositions are :

a at, a kasa, at home ;

ira for, atseic easte trd not, that is for us ;

di of, kasd di save, a house of salt ;

la to, at, si duse la haiii, he went to the inn ; easte la hani, he is

at the inn ;
ku with, steaua ku koadd, the star with a tail ;
in in, in kasa, in the house ;
pri on, pri measa, on the table ;

sum under, kddzu sum kinu, he fell under a pine tree ;
kdtrd towards, kdtrd seard, towards evening ;
fdrd without, fdrd minte, without sense ;
pdnd as far as, pdnd muntile, as far as the hill ;
dupd behind, after, vine diipd mine, he came after me ;
ningd near, u bdgd ningd mine, he put it near me.

Compound prepositions in ordinary use are :

di la from, kiiskvi di la ghamhvolu, wedding guests from the

bridegroom ;
di pri out of, u arkd di pri pdldlhiri, he threw it out of window ;
di iu out of, noi vinim di tu Anglie, we came from England.

Conjunctions

The commonest are :

shi, di and,

ma but,

i . , . i either ... or,

ni . . . ni, nekd . . . nekd neither . . . nor,

kd because, as, since, that,

kdndu, kara when,

dupd tse after

ku tute kd or molonoti (Greek) for all that,

ka si, makd if,

taha as if,

td si or trd si in order that,

ka, kanda as, like ;

and where Greek influence is strong omos however, Upon well
and similar words will be used, and we have heard the Persian
hem (also) used as meaning and.
16

242 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

Verbs

The conjugation of the Vlach verb follows the Latin very
closely in many respects. We will begin with the auxiliary
verbs h'irc to be and aveare to have.
Wire to be (Latin fieri).

Ind.

Pres.

Impcrf.

Pret.

Subj.

Pres.

Imper.

eskn, h

in,

h'

im

eard'm

fui

si

esku, si h

'ill, si

h

im

eshti, h

'ii

ear at

fushl

si

eshti, si h

'ii

h'ii

caste, i

card

fn

si

h'ihd

si h'ibd

h'imu

cardm

fumii

Si

h'imiX

h'itsi

eardtsi

futa

si

h'itsi

h'itsi

suntu

card

furd

si

h'ibd

si h'ibd

The future is formed by using va si, vat or va with the
forms of the present subjunctive, e.g.

vai h'iii, vai h'ii, vai h'iba, etc.

The difference between va si and vai is dialectic, the former
being used in the north and the latter in the south. Va, as
a rule, is only used when a pronoun intervenes between it
and verb, e.g.

va n' h'ibd arhoare,

I shall be cold (lit. there will be cold for me).

The conditional is made by using vjxa in the same way,
e.g.

ha si yineai tine vrea h'ibd und mare hdraud trd noi,
if 5^ou came it would be a great pleasure for us.

We have heard a perfect in use at Muskopol'e, am futd
I have been, and so it is possible that a past participle fiitii
does exist.

In the south a perfect subjunctive still survives, si farim,
but is used as an imperfect.

Aveare to have (Latin habere).

Ind. Pres.

Imperf.

Pret.

Subj. Pres.

Imper.

am

avedm

avui

si am

ai

avedi

avushl

si ai

ai

are

aved

avu

si aibd

si aibd

avSmH

avedmii

avumii

si avemii

avetsi

avedtsi

avuiii

si avetsi

avetsi

au

aved

avurd

si aibd

si aibd

THE VLACH LANGUAGE 243

The future is formed with va si, vai or va, e.g.

vai am, vai at, vai aibd, etc.,

like the present subjunctive.

The conditional is formed with vyea in the same way as the
future. The present participle is avdnddlui (really a Latin
gerundive) and the past participle is avutu.

From the latter a compound pefect and pluperfect can be
formed, e.g.

am avutd I have had, aveam avutd I had had.

Li the south a perfect subjunctive with an imperfect meaning
still survives, si avearim, otherwise if an imperfect or other
tenses of the subjunctive are wanted they can be formed by
using si with the corresponding tenses of the indicative, e.g.

si aveam, si am avutd, si aveam avutd ;

but in a simple language like Vlach such tenses are very rarely
if ever required.

A future perfect can be made by using vai or va si with the
preterite :

vai avushi you will have had, or vai ai avutd.

Similarly a past conditional can be made by using uvea with
the preterite :

vrea avu he would have had.

The other verbs may be divided into four conjugations on
the basiij of Latin.

The First Conjugation contains most verbs of the Latin

first conjugation, verbs in edzu and zburdsku to speak.

Kdftare to ask for (Latin captare).

Ind. Pres. Imperf. Pret. Subj. Pres. Imper. Part. Pres.

kdftu kdftdm kdftai si kaftu kdftdnddlui

kdftsi kdftai kdftdshi si kaftsi kaftd Part, Past.

kdftd kdftd kdftd si kaftd si kaftd kdftatik.

kdftdmU kdftdmii kdftdmii si kdftdmu

kdftdtsi kdftdtsi kdftdtu si kdftatsi kdftatsi

kdftd, kdftu kdftd kdftdrd si kaftd si kaftd

Future, va si, vai or va kaftu, etc. Conditional, vrea kaftu. etc.
Compound perfect and pluperfect, am kdftatd, aveam kdftatd, etc.

244

THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

Other extra tenses can be formed if needed as in the case of
aveare. It is to be noticed how the change of accent affects
the vowel in the first syllable ; as another example we can take —

skulare to raise (Latin excollocare or excolare for exlocare).
Ind. Pres. Imperf. Pret. Subj. Pres. Imper. Part. Past.

Third Pers.
skolii skuldm sk(ii)lai si skodld

Verbs in edzu form the present thus :

skodld skiildtu

Lukrare to work, lukredzu, lukredzi, hikreadze, lukrdmu, lukratsi,

lukredzn,

but are otherwise regular. The third person of the subjunctive

is si lukreadzd.

Zburdre to speak, makes its present thus :

zhiivdskii, zburdshii, zhurashte, zburdmu, zhuratsi, zhuvdsku,

but in all its other tenses is quite regular. The third person of
the subjunctive is si zhiiraskd.

The Second Conjugation makes the infinitive in eare and
the preterite in ui ; it contains verbs of the second and third
Latin conjugations, a few of the fourth, and the few verbs in
sku which are of Latin origin like pasku pdshteare to pasture.

videare to see (Latin videre).

Ind. Pres.

Imperf.

Pret.

Subj. Pres.

Imper.

Part. Pres.

vedu

videdm

vidzui

si vedu

vidzdnddlui

vedzi

V ideal

vidzushi

si vedzl

vedzi

Part. Past.

vedde

vided

vidzu

si veadd

si veadd

vidzuta

videmu

videdmii

vidzumii

si videmii

videtsi

videdtsi

vidzuiii

si videtsi

videtsi

vMu

vided

vidzurd

si veadd

si veadd

Future, va si, vai or va vedii, etc. Conditional, vrea vedu, etc.
Compound perfect and pluperfect, am vidzuta, avcam vidzuta.

Other compound tenses can be formed for the subjunctive,
etc., as in the case of aveare.

As another example we can take the common verb —

iritseare to pass by (Latin iraicere).
Ind. Pres. Imperf. Pret. Subj. Pres. Imper. Part. Past.

trekvi

tritsedm iyikui

Third Pers.
si ireakd

tretsi

trikiitii

THE VLACH LANGUAGE

245

The principal verbs in skii of this conjugation are —

kunosku I know, mesku I treat, pasku I pasture, akresku I grow,
hasku I gape, invesku I clothe.

They conjugate thus :

mishteare to treat.

id. Pres. Imperf.

Pret.

Subj. Pres.
Third Pers.

Imper.

Part. Past,

mesku mishtedm

miskiii

si measkd

meshti

mishdii

The present indicative goes —

mesku, meshti, medshte, mishtemii, mishtetsi, mesku.

The Third Conjugation mainly contains verbs of the
Latin third conjugation and makes the infinitive in eare and
the preterite in u.

spuneave to tell (Latin exponere).
Ind. Pres. Imperf. Pret. Subj. Pres. Imper. Part. Pres.

spunu spimedm spushu si spunii spitudnddlui

si spun'i spune Part. Past.

si spund si spund spusu
si spunemii

si spunetsi si spunetsi
si spund si spund
Future, va si, vai or va spunii, etc. Conditional, vrea spunii.
Compound perfect and pluperfect, am spusd, aveani spusd.

Other compound tenses for the subjunctive, etc., can be
formed on the model of aveare.

As other examples we can take —

Ind. Pres. Imperf. Pret. Subj. Pres. Imper.

Third Pers.
iindeare to spread or stretch —
tindu tindedm, ieshu, timshu si tin da tinde
frdndzeare to break —

spun'i spuneai spusesM

spune spuned spuse

spunemii spunedmii spusimH

spunetsi spunedtsi spusitH

spunii spuned spHsird

Part. Past.

tesii, tiyntii

frdngu frdndzedm fredzhu

fdtseare to make —
fdka fdtsedm fetshu

dutseare to lead —
dukii dutsedm, dushu

trddzeare to draw or drag —
trdgu trddzedm irdpshu

arddeare to laugh —
arddH arddedm arashu

dzdtseare to say —
dzdku dzdtsedm dzdshu

si frdngd frdndze
si fakd fd

si dukd du

frimtu

faptu

diisu

si tragd
si arddd
si dzdkd

tradze traptu

ardde arasu

dzd

dzasH

246 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

The Fourth Conjugation contains verbs of the fourth
and thh-d Latm conjugations, the infinitive is in ire and the
preterite in ii. To this conjugation can also be reckoned all
the verbs in esku which are almost without exception foreign
verbs incorporated in Vlach such as —

pistipsesku I believe, from the Greek TrtoTfio),

g'izivsesku I wander, from the Turkish gezmek to go, gezdirmeh

to cause to go, and
mutyesku I look at, from the Slavonic root motri to see, as in

s-motreti to look at.

In the case of borrowed Greek verbs esku is always added
to the aorist stem, e.g. ocXXd^cu tiXXa^ix, I change, becomes in
Vlach aldksesku with the infinitive aldksire.

durn'ire to sleep (Latin dormire).

Ind. Pres. Imperf. Pret. Subj. Pres. Impcr. Part. Pres.

dorinu durn'inddhii

dorn'i dorn'i Part. Past.

doarmd si doarmd durn'itu

' diirn'imu

durn'itsi durn'itsi

doarmd si doarmd

m,eic. CondiXioxidiX vrea dovmu.
Compound perfect and pluperfect am durn'itd, aveain durn'itd.

Other compound tenses can be formed for the subjunctive,
etc., as in the case of aveare.
Another example is —

avdzdre to hear (Latin audire).

Ind. Pres. Imperf. Pret. Subj. Pres. Imper. Part. Past.

Tloird Pers.
dvdu avdzddm avdzdi si dvdd avde or avdzd avdzdtu

The verbs in esim conjugate as follows :

Ind. Pres. Imperf. Pret. Subj. Pres. Imper. Part. Past.

Third Pers.
pulimsire to fight, from Greek noXfixa encAefxrja-a —
pulimseskii pulimsidm pulimsii si pulimsedskd pulimsid pulimsitu

hrdnire to feed, to keep, from Slavonic chraniti —
hrdnSsku hrdnidm hrdnii si hrdneaskd hrdnia hrdniiH

bitisire to finish, from the Turkish bifmek through the Greek —
itisesku biiisidm biiisn si hitiseaskd bitisid bitisitii

dormu

durn'idm

diirn'ii

si

dorn'i

durn'idi

ditrn'ishi

si

dodrme

ditrn'id

durn'i

si

dtirn'imu

durn'idmii

durn'imti

si

durn'itsi

durn'idtsi

durn'itu

si

dornm

d urn' id
Rntiire 7)a <;i

durn'ird
vai nr va d.

si

nvm

THE VLACH LANGUAGE

247

Irregular Verbs
It will have been seen that not all the verbs given above
as typical examples of their respective conjugations can be
described as regular, especially in the third conjugation.
In this case the different methods of forming the preterite
and past participle depend on the Latin originals. Further
as regards the imperative it seems that the old fashion was
that in the singular at least it should have a special form, e.g.
tinde, avde, spune, etc. ; but now it is more usual for the second
person singular of the present indicative to be used, e.g. vedzt,
avdzl. Three verbs — dutseare, dzdtseare and fdtseare — have still
retained their peculiar Latin imperatives du, dzd and fa.
Dutseare owing to the common habit of dropping unaccented
u has bye-forms which are in ordinary use because in its re-
flexive form mi duku, I go, is perhaps the most used of all
Vlach verbs. Thus nd diUsidmu is nd tsidmu, vd dutsetsi is vd
tsetsl and dutsetsi vd is tsez vd, and these are hard to dis-
tinguish from the corresponding forms of dzdtseare tsiamu, tsetsl,
etc. Of verbs that may be really called irregular the follow-
ing six are the commonest :

id. Pres.

Imperf.

Pret.

Subj. Pres.

Imper.

Part. Past

dare to give (Latin dare) —

dau

didedm

dedui

si dau

datu

dai

didedi

dideshi

si dai

da

da

dided

dedde

si da

si da

ddmu

didedmu

deddimu

si ddmii

datsi

didedtsi

dedditu

si datsi

datsi

dau, da

dided

deddird

si da

si da

I'a/re

to take (Latin levare)-

-

I'au

ludm

lodi

si I'au

loatii

I'ai

ludi

lodshi

si I'ai

I'a

I'a

hid

lo

si I'a

si I'a

lomu

ludmu

lomu

si lomu

loatsi

ludtsi

lodtu

si loatsi

loatsi

I'au, I'a

lud

lodrd

si I'a

si I'a

stare to stand (Latin stare)-

-

stau

stdtedm

stetui

si stall

statu

stai

stdtedi

stetusln

si stai

sta, stei

sta

stated

steiu

si sta

si sta

stdmu

stdtedmu

stetiimu

si stdmji

statsi

stdtedtsi

stetutu

si statsi

statsi

stall, sta

stated

stetiird

si sta

si sta

248

THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

Qd. Pres.

Imper.

Pret.

Subj. Pres.

Imper.

Part. Past.

heare to drink (

^Latin bibere) —

beaii

bedtn

biui

si beau

biutii

b£ai

bedi

biushi

si beai

bea

bed

bed

biu

si bea

si bea

bemil

bedmu

biumu

si be mil

betsl

bedtsi

biutii

si bet si

betsi

beau, bea

bed

biurd

si bea

si bea

vreare to want,

to like (Latin velle) —

voiu

vredm

vrui

si voiu

vruti*

vrei

vreai

vrushi

si vrei

va

vred

vru

si va

vremu

vredmu

vrumii

si vremvi

vretsi

vredtsi

vrutu

si vretsi

voru

vred

vrurd

si va

yineare, yinire

to come

(Latin venire)-

-

yinu

yin'idm

vin'u

si yinu,

yinitu, vinitH

yin'i

yin'iai

vinishi

si yin'i

yind

yine

yin'ia

vine

si yind

si yind

vinimii

yin'iamu

vinimu

si vinim

vinitsi

yin'idtsi

viniiu

si vinitsi

yinitsi

yinu

yin'id

vinird

si yind

si yind

Throughout this

verb the v and y

are interchangeable

except in the preterite, and with the dropping of the unaccented
i one gets forms hke vn'am or 7i'am for yin'iam or vineam.

Passive and Reflexive

In all verbs that are transitive these may be formed by
putting the pronouns mi, ii, si, nd, vd and si in front of the
corresponding persons of the verb, e.g.

mi spelu, I am washed, or I wash myself.

But in addition there is another kind of reflexive which
is formed by putting the pronouns n', is, sh, nd, vd and sh
in front of the persons of the verb. This is used when one
does something which one imagines will be to one's advan-
tage or disadvantage, e.g.

niveasta va n' ti adarii, I will make you my bride ;
«' speia stran'ile, I am washing my clothes ; but speliX stran'ile,
I am washing; the clothes.

THE ^T.ACH L.\NGUAGE 249

Syntax

Vlach syntax is very simple and the language is paratactic
and not syntactic. That is subordinate or dependent clauses
except of the most ordinary kind are rare. They even prefer
to say —

akatsd di ghrapseashte, he starts and -mites, instead of akatsd
ird si ghrdpseaskd, he starts to ^vrite.

Consequenth' conditional clauses are not complicated, and
only the simplest forms are in use. Remote possibihty is
indicated thus (we take the examples from a Samarina folk-tale
published by Papahagi in Basme Aromdne, pp. 490, 491) :

S aveai puil'lu hrisusit ka tine altu nu vai eara tu lume.
If you were to have the golden bird, there would not be
another like you in the world.

Ka tine altu nu vai eara si avurii tine Mushata-Lohlui.
There would not be another like you, if you were to have the
Beautiful One of the World.

S avearim nifigd vdrd ndoi poate vrea mi satur.
If I were to have another one or two, perhaps I would be
satisfied.

The Dialects

Like all languages Mach di\-ide5 into man}' dialects, but
it is not easy to draw any hard and fast line between anj^ two
and to say that one pecuharity occurs in one region and
nowhere else. The speech of one region shades ofi into that
of another and the prommciation varies from individual to
indi\-idual. Still working on broad lines di^-isions may be
made. In the East about Seres there seems to be no particular
dialect and this is not surprising, for the Machs here have come
from man}' different \-illages. Only in Rhodope do the
Gramosteani seem to have preser\'ed their own dialect. In
the ^leglen there is a peculiar dialect, ver\' much under
Bulgarian influence, which links on the one hand to Roumanian
proper and on the other to "Vlach. But of this region as also
of the Seres district and of the Farsherots we have no personal

250 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

knowledge and our information is drawn mainly from the
works of Weigand. In the West we may divide the Vlachs
into three groups. The Northern group begins round
Monastir and passes through Okliridha to j\Iuskopoi'e and the
Albanian border. Of this we ha\'e some, but no deep personal
knowledge. The Central group is represented by Neveska
and Klisura, where we have a fair knowledge of the local
dialect. The Southern group splits up into several others :
(i) the Verria villages, (2) the Olympus Vlachs, (3) the Pindus
villages reaching from Samarina to Turia, (4) Metsovo and the
Zaghori, (5) the Aspropotamos Vlachs, all those south of Turia
and Metsovo and including Malakasi, Kornu, Siraku, Kalarites,
Gardista and Halik'i. Of these districts we know the first,
the third and the fourth well, especially the third, but we have
only a moderate knowledge of the second and very little of
the fifth. In the following accounts of the dialects of these
regions where our own knowledge is at fault we have based
our remarks on the researches of Weigand.

The North

Between the North and the South in general the following
differences are constant :
The North says —

lipseashte, it must, for prinde,

esku for h'iu, eshti for h'ii,

va si for vai in the future of verbs,

shd and sd for shi and si,

ak'ikdsesku, I understand, for dtik'esku,

aistu, this, for aestu,

mine for eu with verbs, e.g. mine esku for eu h'iu.

Monastir-Krushevo District. — Here the marks of the
dialect are :

very little difference between a and a, e.g. land, mdnd, fdntdnd,

etc.
shtshii for shtii and eshishii for eshti, etc.
tsi in the plural becomes tsd, e.g. mnltsd, muntsd, alantsd,

altsd, etc.
Greek sounds such as th, dh, gh, are not well pronounced and

become h' , d and g.

THE VLACH LANGUAGE 251

GoPESH-MoLOViSHTE. — Here the peculiarities are :

the use of g' for y, g'ipiu for yipiu, g'inii for yinu, ag'ine for

ayine, and even in Greek words g'atni for yatni

doctor, g'ilie glass for yilie ;
of zh for dzh, e.g. zhone for dzJione, zhoku for dzhoku,

azhungu for adzhimgu, etc. ;
of ^ for (?^, e.g. zud for tf^wa, avzdm for avdzdm, vizin

for vidzui, etc.

The article in the masculine and neuter is both id and /ff ;
the former occurs after two consonants, e.g.

lukrul, preftul, lemnul, but barbatlu, kallu, Greklu, etc.

Okhridha-Lunka. — Here the main features are :

d for e after hissing sounds and r, e.g. moashdle for moashele,

matsdle for matsele, etc. ;
an extra vowel is often inserted between two consonants,

especially when one of them is r or /, e.g. kaluguru for

kalugru, hiktiru for lukru, kdsenu for ksenu, garambo for

gambro, etc.

T/jg Centre

Neveska and Klisura. — Here Greek influence on the
pronunciation begins. Thus we have :

nd for fit, alandd for alantd, munde for mimte ;

Tig for nk, ingrunare for inkrunare, in gasd for in kasd, and thus

a confusion arises between ningd near and ninkd again ;
mb for mp, skumbu for sktimpu, m bade for m /^a^^, imblinU for

In the present indicative in the verbs of the third con-
jugation the accent in the first and second persons plural
falls not on the final syllable as elsewhere, but on the pen-
ultimate, e.g.

fdtsim, dutsim, frdndzim, spunim, depunim, etc.

Here too one first hears as one goes from north to south
eu or io for mine.

But of course since this district is on the border line between
the two big regions both northern and southern forms can be
used, for instance both ak'ikdsesku and duk'esku are in use.

252 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

The South

The Verria Villages. — Here the dialect is mainly that
of Avdhela about which more is said below.

The Olympus Vlachs. — Here we have a kind of lisp
and for

tsh we get ts, fitsoru for fitshorii, fetsu for fetshu, etc. ;
sh we get s, si for shi, isire for ishire, etc. ;
dzh we get dz, dzone for dzhone, dzoku for dzhoku, etc. ;
zh we get z, Kozani for Kozhani, etc.

On the other hand before i and e ts and dz sometimes almost

become tsh and dzh, e.g.

atshia for atsia, tshem for tsem, fatshem for fdtsem, dzheand for
dzeand, tradzhi for tvadzl, etc.

It js probable that this lisp of the Olympus Vlachs is due
to the very strong Greek influence amongst them. The Modern
Greek in most districts cannot pronounce sounds such as tsh,
sh, dzh, zh, etc., and we have heard this in a native of Samarina
who was for twenty-five years continuously in Athens having
left his home when a boy of eight. He came back to his village
for the summer and though he could talk Vlach perfectly, could
not say sh, tsh, dzh and zh ; he would say sedu for shedu, dzone
for dzhone and so on. Since this peculiarity also occurs amongst
the Aspropotamos Vlachs who have all been living for the last
thirty years within the kingdom of Greece where education
in Greek is nominally compulsory, it seems at least reasonable
to attribute it to the conquering influence of Modern Greek.

The PiNDUS Villages around Samarina split up into
two groups. The first consists of Smiksi, Avdhela, Perivoli,
Turia, Ameru and Baieasa and probably too of some of the
villages lying between Turia and Malakasi. The second
consists of Furka, Samarina, Briaza, Armata, Padza and
Palioseli.

Some features are common to both these groups. These
are :

The survival of the perfect subjunctive, e.g.

furim, avearim, bdgarim, skidarim, akdtsarim, videarim,
vrearim, yinearim, ptearim, agudearim, durn'arim,
vindearim, loarim, etc.

THE VLACH LANGUAGE 253

The second person singular of the preterite in the third
conjugation is accented on the first syllable, e.g.

spusishi for spuseshi^ fedtshisht for fitsishi, plimsishl for
plimsSshi, dusishi for duseshi, vinishi for vinishi, deddishi
for dideshi, etc.

But the survival of tseshi and atsesin for duseshi and
aduseshl shows that this was not always so.

The dropping of unaccented i and u is very strong and the
change of unaccented e and 0 to ^ and i: also very marked,
e.g.

skdndrd ior skdndurd, Vepri for I'epiive, iard for eard, etc.

Unaccented a and a except when initial become a, e.g.

aldgai, aldksesku.

Unaccented a drops, mkai and figai for mdkai and mditgai.
I after ts and ^2: becomes a, mundzd, altsd, etc.
The differences between the two groups are that in the
AvDHELA group they say —

yiPigiis for twenty, as usual.

Before /', d and t in the combinations dz and ts drop, e.g. munzl'i,
frasl'i ; and in some cases the s becomes z, e.g. frazl'i,
sozl'i ; and it even infects words with the article le, vdzlc
the cows, for vdtsdle, biserizle the churches, etc.

a' em, a'ets, a' earn, etc., are commonly used for avem, avets,
aveam, etc.

At Samarina and the villages allied to it —

The passion for d is very strong, pdldthiri, pdrdkdlsesku, etc.
Before I' the d and t of dz and is are still very slightly heard.
For yihgits they say yigindz and this is at times abbreviated to

yindzd.
Mdkare to eat, for mdhgare,
Punye and fraPlye are used for punte, frdnte.

For the first person plural of the perfect there is another
old form now almost obsolete and only used in a few cases,
as adrasini, fudzisim, vinisini, vidzusim, kddzusim. This was
probably a pluperfect such as occurs in Roumanian where we
have adunasem, idcusem, etc.

254 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

In the Zaghori and at Metsovo the Greek influence in

pronouncing

nd, ng and mHor rtt, nk and mp is not so marked,
ts and dz remain unaffected before /',
fitsesht, dideshl, etc., are the regular forms.

The AsPROPOTAMOS Vlachs have the same lisping pro-
nunciation as their kinsfolk on Olympus, at least those with
whom we have spoken had. Otherwise there is little to be
said about their dialect, for no one so far has studied it. One
noticeable word is letu or litesku I go out, which is used for
esu [exeo) ; this has the infinitives litire and liteare, the present
is letu, letsi, leate, litem, litets, letu, the imperfect liteam, the
preterite litii.

But one peculiarity of the Aspropotamos and Metsovo
districts is that some words of Latin origin still survive which
are unknown elsewhere among the Vlachs, e.g.

sdnu well, Latin sanus ;

ndmal'u an animal (used of sheep and cattle), Latin animal —

these two words occur at Samarina as well ;
intselegu I understand, Latin intelligo ;
negrn black (of coffee only), Latin nigey (cf. the place-name

K'atra N'agra at Samarina) ;
nkredu I trust, Latin incredo ;
sintu I feel, Latin sentio ;
amo now, Latin inodo ;

and a few words of Slavonic origin, e.g.
pi gov downhill.

All these are known in Roumanian, and it is curious that
they should still occur in a region where Greek is steadily
advancing. Most Pindus Vlachs count and reckon in Greek,
because their arithmetic was learnt at the Greek school, and
they at times speak a tongue that is really Greek tinged with
Vlach, as

Easie pramatikos una apofasi teliusitd,

It is practically a settled determination ;

and we get words such as

efthinitate cheapness, aldksimindu a change of clothing,
aldksesku I change, and so I dress, from the Greek dWfi^w
and its opposite disldksesku I undress ;

THE VLACH LANGUAGE 255

aposiusesku I am tired, from the Greek cnToa-Talvo), dnoa-raaa,

and its opposite dispostusesku I cease to be tired, I rest ;
uspitlik'e friendship, from the Vlach oaspe, oaspitsi with the
Turkish termination liq.

Perhaps the reader will be inclined to agree with the old
woman who told us —

" Limba anoastrd easte ka ma anapudhd di tide.
Our language is the most upside down of all."

CHAPTER XII
THE HISTORY AND ORIGIN OF THE BALKAN VLACHS

Paramith shteam, paramith aspush,
Nu shtiu kum fetshu, ma nu v arash.

I knew a tale, I have told a tale,

How well I do not know, but I have not deceived you.

Conclusion of Vlach Folktale

OF the early history of the Vlachs no detailed account
is possible ; all the Byzantine and mediaeval histories
are written from the towns, the plains and the coasts,
and what was happening in the hills is generally not recorded,
even if it were known to the writers themselves. So as long
as the Vlachs remained in the hills of the interior they were
outside the sphere of history and wherever or if ever they
descended from the hills and settled in the plains they easily
escaped notice by becoming absorbed into the surrounding
population.

As early as the sixth century a.d, the existence of Vlachs
in the Balkan peninsula may be inferred from the list of forts
and fortified towns recorded by Procopius ; for among a
number of place names including some clearly Italian in
soimd like Kastello Novo, we find others such as Skeptekasas,
Burgualtu, Lupofantana and Gemellomuntes which are un-
mistakably Vlach, showing that by that period if not earlier
Vlach was a separate language among the Romance tongues.
Later in the same century the first Vlach words as opposed to
place names are recorded by Theophylactus. In 579 a.d.
Commentiolus with a Byzantine army was pursuing the
Avars in the passes of the Balkans. The pack on one of the
baggage animals began to slip at a time when the muleteer in

charge was walking some distance ahead. A shout of ' ' Retorna ' '

336

THE HISTORY OF THE BALKAN VLACHS 257

in the native dialect intended for the muleteer alone was
misinterpreted at large as a signal for retreat, and the army
"turned back" in confusion thinking the Avars were upon
them. Theophanes, who tells the same tale, in place of " Retorna,"
gives the words " Torna, torna fratre " which add more point
to the story and are better Vlach. " Torna, torna fratre "
almost certainly refers to the baggage and means " It is slipping,
brother," and not " Turn back " which is the usual interpreta-
tion given. It is also possible that " se torna " a reflexive form
should be read in place of " retorna."

After the sixth century there is a long interval before
\^achs are again referred to ; it is possible perhaps that
Latin or Romance names such as Paganus and Sabinus among
the Bulgarian chieftains of the eighth century imply a Vlach
element, but no certainty is possible. About the year 976 a.d.
we read in the pages of Cedrenus that David the brother of
Samuel Tsar of Bulgaria was slain between Kastoria and
Presba at a spot called the Fair Oaks by certain wandering
Vlachs. This is the first mention of Vlachs as such, but soon
afterwards references to them and mention of them become
frequent, and we find several large districts called after their
name. Great Vlachia for several centuries was the name
given to Thessaly and Southern Macedonia ; and Little
Vlachia comprised parts of Acarnania, iEtolia and Epirus.
In both these cases however the Vlach population was pro-
bably confined to the hills in the main and occupied the same
general position as to-day. Similarly in Dalmatia which
falls outside the scope of the present work there were two
districts of Morlachs known as Great and Little Vlachia
respectively. How much the Vlachs were involved in the
Bulgarian empire under Sam.uel can only be conjectured ;
but it is probable that at least they fought in the Bulgarian
armies and secured their share of plunder. When the Byzan-
tines surprised the army of the Tsar at Okhridha in 10 17, a
few years after Samuel's death there is perhaps a hint of
Vlach troops among the Bulgarian forces. When the surprise
occurred a shout, it is said, arose among the Bulgarians of
" Bg^sm n T^sap " which according to Xylander is " Fugite
17

25S THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

O Cffisar." It is difficult to explain the existence of any
form of Latin or Romance speech among the Bulgarian troops
except by the presence of Vlach allies.

In the Strategikon of Kekaumenos there is a description of
the Vlachs in Thessaly around Trikkala and Larissa in the
eleventh century a.d. Their manner of life then was similar
in certain respects to what it is now ; for from April to
September their flocks and families lived in the mountains of
Bulgaria, which then included all Macedonia. Morally they
are described as treacherous, faithless towards all mankind and
with no fear of God in them ; as cowards with the hearts of
hares, and brave only through cowardice. This is precisely
the character one would expect them to have in the towns
which presumably sufferedconsiderabl}^ from their depredations.
Thessaly was then full of Vlachs, for Kekaumenos mentions
that a river near Pharsala flowed through the midst of Vlach
villages. We also hear of the appointment of an offtcial to be
the ruler of the Vlachs in the province of Hellas.

Barely a hundred years later we have another description
in the journal of the Rabbi Benjamin of Tudela, who travelled
by land up the eastern coast of Greece about 1160.

" Sinon Potamo or Zeitun is a day's journey further;
R. Sh'lomo and R. Ja'acob are the principal of its fifty Jewish
inhabitants. Here are the confines of Wallachia, a country
of which the inhabitants are called Vlachi. They are as
nimble as deer and descend from their mountains into the plains
of Greece committing robberies and making booty. Nobody
ventures to make war upon them, nor can any king bring
them to submission, and they do not profess the christian
faith. Their names are of Jewish origin and some say they
have been Jews which nation they call brothers. Whenever
they meet an Israelite they rob, but never kill him as they do
the Greeks. They profess no religious creed."

Zeitun is the modern Lamia, so the confines of Wallachia
were the range of Othrys in the south of Thessaly. Jewish
names such as Simeon, David, and Samuel are found at the
time among the Bulgarians, and may have occurred also among
the Vlachs, especially as the races were then closely united.

THE HISXORY OF THE BALKAN VLACHS 259

For the century between these two accounts there are a
few references in Anna Comnena : The Emperor Alexius on
his march into Thessaly passed close to " a hill called in the
common tongue of the nations Kissavos " and then " descended
to Exeva, a Vlach town situated near Andronia." Kissavos
is a second name for Mt. Ossa which still survives in ordinary
use, but Exeva cannot be identified. Elsewhere the same
author notes in connection with iEnos that " some of the
Bulgarians and those who are nomadic folk are commonly
called Vlachs." Pudilius is named as a prominent \^ach
leader in Thrace, and the Vlachs are mentioned as acting as
guides to the Comans in the Balkan mountains.

Towards the end of the twelfth century the Vlachs suddenly
come into prominence. For some time past the state of the
B\'zantine Empire had been becoming more precarious, and
when in 1186 in preparation for his marriage the Emperor
Isaac increased the taxes and took toll of the flocks and herds,
the Bulgarians and Vlachs in the north promptly rose in open
rebellion. The leaders of the rising were two brothers Peter
and Asan by name and Vlachs by race according to Nicetas
the contemporary historian. From the very first they appear
to have aimed at an independent kingdom, for we read that
Peter crowned himself with a golden chaplet and assumed
scarlet buskins, the sign of Byzantine sovereignty. Their
followers were roused to a pitch of religious frenzy ; it was
commonly believed that God himself was on the side of the
\'lachs and that Demetrius, the martyr and patron saint of
Salonica had left his shrine to help their cause. The first
attempts of the rebels ended in disaster ; they were defeated
by the imperial troops and driven across the Danube like the
Gadarene swine in the Gospel to quote Nicetas' own simile.
Returning across the river reinforced by Scythian bands they
met with another defeat in the following year, but the victorious
general being superseded owing to jealousy the fortune of war
changed. An army under John Cantacuzenus who had im-
prudently encamped in the open plain, was attacked at night
by Peter and Asan. The surprise was complete, the army
was utterly routed and immense booty fell into the hands of

26o THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

the Vlachs, Eventually Isaac took the held in person, and
making Adrianople his base advanced with a picked force
of cavalry against the Vlachs. Nicetas who seems to have
been present gives some account of the battle which was
probably typical of the Vlach and Bulgarian tactics. Sending
off their|jbooty to the hills, the Vlachs received the Emperor's
onset with volleys of spears and arrows. Then retreating
a short distance they halted and repeated the process, until
they had enticed their opponents on to rough ground when
they drew their swords and fell on them with shouts and yells.
The result of the day was unfavourable for the Emperor who
though escaping actual defeat had to withdraw to Adrianople.
In later engagements Isaac seems to have met with more
success, but no decisive victory had been gained when the
approach of the third crusade made a temporary peace prudent.
Although Frederick Barbarossa before starting had secured
permission from the Emperor to march through Bulgaria and
Thrace, every obstacle was put in his way and relations
between the two were strained to the utmost. Peter and
Asan in this crisis offered Barbarossa the aid of 40,000 men,
and expressed their willingness to hold their kingdom as his
lieges, but their offer was refused on the grounds that the
crusade was against infidels and not cliristians. As soon
as the crusaders had passed on their way to the east Isaac
reopened the war against the Vlachs and Bulgarians. In
the interval Peter and Asan had repaired the hill forts and the
new campaign went in favour of the Vlachs. In 1192 a
Byzantine army retreating through a narrow pass was utterly
routed and the Emperor almost captured. This battle was a
turning point in the war for the Vlachs now ventured to
attack the towns, Anchialos was sacked, Varna captured and
Sardica partially destroyed. The loss of a second army in
1 1 94 forced Isaac to look to the king of Hungary for aid, and
early in the next year together with his brother Alexius he set
out on a fmal campaign. Treachery now came to the aid of
the Vlachs, for Alexius deposed and blinded his brother and
the projected expedition was abandoned. The new emperor
Alexius offered terms to the Vlachs, which were indignantly

THE HISTORY OF THE BALKAN VLACHS 261

rejected and Asan raiding the country around Seres, retired
with numbers of captives in safety to Bulgaria. Among these
captives, says Nicetas, was a priest well skilled in the Vlach
tongue who foretold to Asan that he would soon be murdered.
This prophecy was fulfilled by a friend of Asan's called Ivan,
who seduced the sister of Asan's wife and on being discovered
nuirdered Asan to save himself. Soon afterwards Peter was
also murdered and there was civil war between the \^achs and
Bulgarians, which ended in Ivan flying for safety to Alexius
who made him governor on the Balkan frontier and in Johan-
nitius a younger brother of Peter and Asan becoming sole king
of the Bulgarians and Viae lis.

The reign of Johannitius, Joannice or Johanizza as he is
variously called began in 1196 or 1197 and lasted beyond the
Frankish conquest of Constantinople till 1207. Shortly after
his accession Chryses, a Vlach in the Byzantine service who had
taken no part in the revolt of Peter and Asan and was governor
of Strumnitsa suddenly revolted. He seized Prosakon a
ruined fort on a lofty cliff overhanging the Vardar, quickly
repaired the walls and awaited the attack of Alexius. After
a long and stubborn siege and a successful sally of the Vlachs
in which the Byzantine camp was plundered, Alexius recog-
nised Chryses as ruler of Prosakon and Strumnitsa together
with the surrounding country. Thus in 11 99 a semi-inde-
pendent state under a Vlach chief and with a certain Vlach
population, how large it is impossible to say, was established
on the Vardar. The striking success of Chryses inspired Ivan
to revolt from his new allegiance in the following year. His
attempt was however less successful, for deceived by Alexius'
terms of peace he rashly came to Constantinople and was
immediately thrown into prison. He had however previously
routed an imperial army and captured its general Kamytses,
and this indirectly led to the second revolt of Chryses. As
soon as Ivan began to come to terms with Alexius, the captive
general was removed to the camp of Johannitius who was
making the best of the occasion by plundering far and wide.
Chryses then paid the ransom asked for Kamytses, and mean-
while Alexius came to terms with Johannitius and confiscated

262 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

Kamytses' property, and so to recover the money spent
Chryses with the ransomed general embarked on further
conquests. They easily overcame Prilapus and Pelagonia
and Kamytses advancing from the north entered Thessaly
by the pass of Tempe. Details of this expedition which may
have been an attempt to raise the Vlachs of the south are
unfortunately not recorded, but the final result was failure,
Kamytses lost all his new possessions and Chryses was deprived
of Strumnitsa. From these minor revolts we may return to
Johannitius.

Early in his reign Johannitius had conceived the idea of
finding support in the west, and had despatched with this
intent embassies to Rome to appeal for recognition. The
first embassy had miscarried and had been intercepted by
Byzantine officials, but one successfully reached Rome just
after Innocent HI had ascended the papal throne. The appeals
of Johannitius were graciously received by the Pope, who
despatched in reply an answer by the Bishop of Brundusium.
This was the beginning of a series of letters between the Pope
and the king, which have been preserved in the Gesta Inno-
centi. In these letters J ohannitius in making his various appeals
lays stress on the Roman origin of the Vlachs, a claim which
the Pope admits and proceeds to grant as the king requests
formal recognition of his kingdom and the privilege of coining
money. These negotiations had already taken place when the
fourth crusade began and the Latins arrived at Constantinople
ostensibly at first to place the young Alexius on the throne.
It may safely be presumed that Johannitius expected his
claim as King of Wallachia and Bulgaria to be recognised by
the crusaders ; if so he was disappointed for in the pages
of Villehardouin we read how all did fealty to the young Alexius
excepting one John of Wallachia and Bulgaria who had con-
quered nearly half the land on the west side of the straits of
St George. The accession of Baldwin, Count of Flanders, to
the Byzantine throne a few months later brought no change
in the Frankish attitude towards the Wallachian king ; an
embassy from Johannitius was informed that their master must
sue for pardon, and touch the imperial footstool with his

THE HISTORY OF THE BALKAN VLACHS 263

forehead in token of submission. So with a Latin Emperor in
Constantinople the Vlach and Bulgarian war continued only
on a larger scale than before, as Johannitius in addition to
40,000 Comans was now helped by the Greeks. From the
war that followed we can estimate Johannitius' qualities as a
general.

In a battle outside Adrianople the crusaders were utterly
defeated, Dandolo the blind Doge of Venice and Villehardouin
by a masterly retreat at night saved a portion of the army,
but the Emperor Baldwin was captured and the appeals of
Innocent III failed to secure the release of the royal captive,
who died or was done to death a few months later in Bulgaria.
Shortly afterwards Seres fell into the hands of the Vlachs and
was destroyed ; and early in 1206 at Rusium the crusaders
lost more than a hundred knights. Johannitius' policy of
destroying all the cities that surrendered soon alienated his
Greek allies. A new ally however arose in the person of
Theodore Lascaris who by threatening Constantinople from the
east enabled Johannitius to do as he wished in the west until
in 1207 the crusaders made peace with Lascaris and so became
free to oppose Johannitius in force. Henry had succeeded
Baldwin as emperor at Constantinople, and the Marquis
Boniface at Salonica was ruler not only of the district round
the city, but of South Macedonia and Thessaly as well. These
two were to combine forces and undertake a joint expedition
against the Vlachs. It was arranged that in late summer
they should meet at Adrianople, but the meeting never took
place, as the Marquis Boniface was killed by a roving Bul-
garian band. His head was cut off and sent in triumph to
Johannitius. In the same year Johannitius himself was found
stabbed outside Salonica ; he was probably murdered by one
of his own men, but the pious inhabitants of the city attributed
his death to the lance of St Demetrius.

Johannitius was succeeded by his sister's son Borilas
who reigned until 1218 when he was driven out by a son of
Asan who was known as Johannitius Asan or Johannitius
II. Johannitius II, whose capital was the Bulgarian Tirnova,
held the throne for twenty-three years and by employing

264 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

diplomacy as well as war, and by using the reviving power of the
Greeks to counteract the Latins extended his boundaries in all
directions. In the south his power reached to the borders of
Thessaly or Great Vlachia, in the west to Illyria and in the
east to Seres. On his death in 1241 his kingdom soon fell to
pieces ; there was no heir of full age to succeed, and twenty
years later the kingdom of the Vlachs and Bulgarians lost all
its former importance.

It is perhaps impossible to decide the relative position of
the Vlach and Bulgarian races in the kingdom of the Asans.
It may however be considered certain that the Vlachs were in a
minority, and that there was a continual tendency for them to
be merged into the Bulgarians. The emphasis laid by the
rulers on their Vlach origin was probably due to the exigencies
of foreign politics and a desire to obtain help from Rome ;
it does not necessarily imply that within the kingdom itself
the Vlachs were either numerous or powerful. While the
Vlach and Bulgarian kingdom in the north was rapidly de-
clining the Vlachs in the mountains of Epirus and Thessaly
suddenly acquired political importance.

At the division of the Byzantine Empire, when Great Vlachia
and Salonica had fallen to the share of Boniface, Little Vlachia
or Epirus, iEtolia and Acarnania had remained Greek, and its
mixed population of Greeks, Albanians and Vlachs united
in their hatred of the Franks were ruled by Michael Angelus
as despot of Epirus. Shortly after the death of Boniface the
kingdom of Salonica declined, the Greek rulers in the west
extended their borders eastwards, and a new independent
state with a population mainly Vlach not long afterwards
arose. John Ducas, a natural son of the second despot married
the heiress of Taron a hereditary Vlach chieftain, and so
was enabled to make himself prince of a Great Vlachia with a
capital at Hypate or Neopatras in the Spercheus valley. He
was succeeded by his son and grandson, but in 1308 the line
failed and Great Vlachia as an independent state ceased to
exist ; the Spercheus valley fell into the hands of the Catalans,
and Thessaly was annexed to the emperor at Constantinople.
In 1334 Cantacuzenus records that the Thessalian mountaineers

THE HISTORY OF THE BALKAN VLACHS 265

who o\Mied no king, Albanians, Malakasians, Buians and
Mesarites, up to the number of twelve thousand submitted to
the emperor Andronicus HI because of winter. In 1350
Little Vlachia was conquered by the Servians, and its history
from then till the coming of the Turks is one of incessant
warfare. Lists of battles and rulers are recorded but of the
fate of its mixed population no details have been preserved.

Thus in the fourteenth century generally the history of the
Vlachs fails and there is a long gap until afLer the Turkish
conquest. In the interval it is true there are several notices
of Vlach troops employed against Dushan and in other wars ;
a few individual Vlachs are also from time to time mentioned
such as Urban who cast cannon for Mohammed at the siege
of Constantinople, but for the history of the race as a whole
there is little or no information. Their fortunes after the
conquest have been told in previous chapters, and it only
remains to consider the vexed question of their origin.

It was generally recognised in antiquity that the Vlachs
were connected with Roman colonists ; and, as we have just
seen, the claim of Johannitius King of Bulgaria and Wallachia
to be of Roman blood met with immediate recognition from
Pope Innocent III. This instance, if it stood alone, might
perhaps be explained away as a convenient political fiction
acceptable at the time to both sides alike, but no such solution
is possible in view of other evidence. Writing in 1150 some
fifty years earlier than the papacy of Innocent, the Presbyter
of Dioclea had expressly identified the Morlachs or Black
Vlachs of Dalmatia with the Roman colonials and had trans-
lated their name as " Nigri Latini." The same \'iew worked
out in greater detail is to be found in the De Regno DalmaticB
et CroaticB of Lucius of Trau who lived in the seventeenth
century. Cinnamus centuries earlier regarded the Vlachs north
of the Danube as Italian colonists and the fantastic derivation
of the name Vlach from Flaccus the Roman conqueror of the
Getse, which appears in ^Eneas Sylvius' (Pius II) description
of Europe, may also be cited as evidence for the widespread
belief in a Roman origin. Modern authorities have treated
the question of origin from a somewhat different standpoint,

266 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

and accepting a connection with Rome, which is obvious
from the language alone, have asked what this connection is,
and what is the relationship between the Vlachs of the Balkan
peninsula and those north of the Danube. These further
questions were to some extent recognised in antiquity, but
were never fully answered. Kekaumenos believed that the
Vlachs had come south into Thessaly, Macedonia and Epirus
after Dacia was abandoned by the Romans, and that they
were the descendants of the Getae and Bessi. Thus pre-
sumably he regarded them as Romanised tribes rather than
descendants of actual Roman colonists. Lucius on the other
hand regards the Vlachs mainly as Roman colonists, and
instead of a movement from north to south, believes in a
migration in the opposite direction. Generally however those
north of the Danube were held to be Roman colonists from
the time of Trajan, and the origin of those in the Balkans was
rarely separately considered. Modern opinion like ancient
has been far from unanimous in its answers.

The Roman colonisation of the Balkan peninsula was not
confined to the northern half, and in the south there were the
important Roman cities of Corinth and Patrae. Nevertheless
though a language of Latin origin still survives to-day in the
north, there is no trace of one in the south except for a few
Latin words that have been adopted into modern Greek.
This may be due to two causes ; either Roman colonisation
was on a far larger scale in the north than in the south, or
else what may be termed the opposition language was different
in the two districts. As it was, both these causes were in
operation.

It was a characteristic of the Roman Empire that in the
east generally where Latin met Greek, Greek invariably
prevailed. It was this that led first to the division of the
empire and later to that of Christendom, so that it seems
legitimate if we find a Romance language surviving in the
east to infer that it arose in an environment which linguistically
was not Greek. What is known from history is quite in accord-
ance with such a conjecture. In the south from very early
times Greek was the solo language, but in the north it was

THE HISTORY OF THE BALKAN VLACHS 267

otherwise. From both Herodotus and Thucydides it appears
that in the fifth century B.C. Hellenism was very partial even
on the coasts of Macedonia, Thucydides even mentions bilingual
tribes on the peninsula of Athos and the existence of a non-
hellenized population presumably formed the basis of
Demosthenes' denial that Alexander was a Hellene. By the
time of the Roman conquest Hellenic influences had doubtless
increased greatly and it ma}^ perhaps be assumed that Greek
was practically the sole language on the coasts, and the chief
language in the principal towns. Strabo nevertheless, who
wrote in the first century a.d., records the existence of bilingual
peoples in Western or Upper Macedonia ; the languages
spoken are not stated, but it is almost certain that if Greek
was one it w^as not the mother tongue. A more striking
example perhaps is in the description of Greece which used
commonly to be attributed to Dicaearchus ; it is there stated
that the inhabitants of Chalcis in Eubcea were Greek and
spoke Greek, a statement which seems meaningless unless
the existence of another language even so far south was just
conceivable. The Bessi afford an interesting example of
the survival of a separate language ; they were a Thracian
tribe who lived in the mountains of Hsemus and Rhodope
and possessed in Strabo's time a wide reputation for robbery.
Herodotus regards them as a division of the Satrae. Thucydides
almost certainly referring to the same people calls them ' the
sword-bearers,' and as Satnr in Albanian means ' knife '
to-day, they may have some connections with the modern
Albanians. At the end of the fourth century a.d. the Bessi
were converted to Christianity by Niceta of Remesiana, and
in the following century a monk Theodosius built a monastery
near the Jordan with four chapels in it, one of which was for
the Bessi to worship in in their own language What this
language was is unknown ; it may have been a form of Thracian,
but whatever it was its survival is important as indicating
that various languages continued in the hills.

The fact that Greek was far from being the universal
language in Macedonia and the northern part of the peninsula
would undoubtedly help the spread of Latin in the interior

268 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

and especially in the hills which were opened up first by Roman
roads and Roman trade. As against this must be noted that
most of the inscriptions found are in Greek, and excepting
in the northern districts Latin inscriptions are few in number.
It has therefore been urged that by the second century a.d.
the peninsula was thoroughly hellenized. Epigraphical evi-
dence however need have very little bearing on the language
commonly spoken, for inscriptions are mostly official and
always in the educated tongue. The epigraphical evidence for
the Balkan peninsula in the eighteenth century for example
would suggest that the population was almost exclusively
Greek or Turkish. The Slav-speaking peoples might be
recorded but the Albanians and Vlachs would escape all
notice. For the fifth century a.d. although literature was
nearly all in Greek there is evidence for Latin being used in
the interior. Niceta, Bishop of Remesiana, used Latin not
Greek ; Latin was the native tongue of Justinian who came
from Dardania ; but a passage from Prisons is perhaps the
best illustration of the position Latin then held. Priscus
when in Scythia acting as envoy of Theodosius ii to Attila
was addressed by a man in native garb in Greek, The circum-
stance surprised him because Latin was the language used for
communication with strangers and only the slaves from the
coasts of Thrace and Illyria ever spoke Greek. The man in
question happened to be a Greek who was living with the Huns.
It is not possible to give a complete list of the Roman
colonies and settlements in the various Balkan provinces, but
it is nevertheless certain that their distribution if accurately
known would not correspond with the Vlach districts to-day.
The Vlachs as we have seen belong essentially to the hills, but
the Roman colonies would be placed on the lower slopes or in
the plains. The Vlachs, who are found to-day in towns that
were once the site of Roman colonies, have only settled there
in comparatively recent times. The view has nevertheless
been put forward that Aemilus Paulus colonised the hills with
Roman troops in order to guard the passes, and that the Vlach
districts in the hills including that round Verria correspond
with the MmilisLU settlements. Unfortunately for any such

THE HISTORY OF THE BALKAN VLACHS 269

theory the Vlachs at Vcrria only came there after the end of
the eighteenth century and the colonies of iEmilius are mainly
if not entirely mythical. If the Vlachs are the actual de-
scendants of earlier Roman colonists, some changes in position
have to be assumed, though this in itself is no objection if the
warlike histor}^ of the country is taken into account. A more
serious objection arises from the general characteristics of
Vlach life. As far back as we can trace them the Vlachs
have been nomadic, many of their present settlements are of
quite recent origin, and in the past there seems no doubt that
nomadism was far more prevalent among them than it is now.
As we have already seen, modern Vlach possesses no words
of Latin origin for any but the bare essentials of a hut or
house. There is strong prejudice among them against agri-
culture or the mason's trade ; it is also noticeable that the
Vlach words now found in modern Greek are chiefly connected
with flocks and herds, and that the muleteering words in Greek
such as kapistri (a halter) are largely of Latin origin. Thus
what evidence there is, suggests that from the first the Vlachs
have led a more or less nomadic life and have been in the main
dependent on flocks and herds. It is therefore more than
mere chance that their first mention in history concerns a
muleteer. It needs but little consideration to realise that this
is not the kind of life which the descendants of Roman colonists
might be expected to follow. To become a shepherd in the
first instance capital is needed ; a nomad life involves self-
reliance, requires a long training probably from birth,
and is perhaps the last form of life a settled population could
adopt with success. The opposite change from a nomadic
to a settled life is easy and is constantly taking place. The
increase of trade, as we saw in the case of the Vlachs themselves,
led to a great increase in settled villages during the eighteenth
century ; a decrease in the number of flocks and herds by
disease, war or robbery produces the same result, for the town
is the last refuge of the nomad who has lost his flocks. It
appears therefore on the whole probable that the Vlachs are
in main the descendants of Romanised hill tribes, rather than
of actual Roman colonists who would long since have been

270 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

absorbed by the other town-dwelHng races, and in particular
by the Greeks. This solution however involves the larger
question, which has lately been much discussed, the origin of
nomadism in the Balkans generalty.

Directly to the north of the peninsula are the open plains
of the eastern Danube ; on two sides they are enclosed by
mountains, by the Carpathians in the west and by the Balkans
in the south ; to the north and north-east between the moun-
tains and the sea they join the Russian steppes which in turn
lead to the Asian plateau. Hence from one point of view the
plains of the Danube form a cul-de-sac for the Asiatic nomad
tribes driven westwards into Europe from off the plateau,
and each successive inroad would drive the one that preceded
it closer against the hills. Thus two Turko-Tartar tribes are
now settled in Europe ; the Magyars, who after a brief stay
in what is now Roumania, were pushed still further west into
their present territory, and the Bulgars who have drifted
southwards over the Balkans, The Finns, also of Asiatic
origin, have reached their position in a somewhat similar way
by moving northwards to avoid the mountains. Are the
Vlachs also an Asiatic tribe, and do the traces of nomadic life
that survive among them point to a former home on the Asian
plateau ? That their language is Romance is in itself of
little consequence, for the Bulgars are an example near at hand
of a race that has changed its language. In connection with
such a theory it is conceivable that anthropological evidence
alone could give a definite answer, but apart from the doubt
among anthropologists as to how environment and inter-
marriage affect physical types, evidence of an anthropological
kind for the Vlachs is very meagre. It has frequently been said
that the Vlachs have an Italian appearance, but the only state-
ment on the question which, as far as we know, can possibly
possess any scientific value is that of Mr. Sokolis the Greek
doctor at Metsovo in 1861. In his judgment the Vlachs are
neither of a Hellenic nor Albanian type, but more akin to
Slavs. This however, if true, may easily be a peculiarity of the
Metsovo Vlachs, for the country round is noted for the number
of Slavonic place names that still exist. We would describe

THE HISTORY OF THE BALKAN VLACHS 271

the Vlachs as a race of medium size and slight build ; with
often a white skin and high complexion as compared with the
olive tint of the Greeks. The hair is rarely black, usually dark
brown and sometimes quite fair especially in youth ; and many
of the children with fair hair, rosy cheeks and blue eyes could
pass unnoticed in northern Europe. At the same time there
is a great variety of types and the features vary extremely ;
in some faces they are clean cut and refined, in others broad and
heavy. Such personal impressions however have very little
scientific value without being supported by measurements
and statistics ; for the exceptional types by contrast make
a deeper impression on the memory than the normal. Failing
adequate anthropological evidence it is perhaps impossible
to refute the theory of a Turko-Tartar or Asiatic origin. It
is certainly true that central Asia is a great centre of nomadic
tribes who have two definite homes, one for summer and one
for winter ; and that tribes from that quarter have come into
Europe in all ages seems to admit of little doubt. Asia
probably was the home of the Scythians, and possibly also of
" the proud Hippemolgoi that drink mare's milk," who are
mentioned in the opening lines of the thirteenth Iliad. But
though such a theory cannot be refuted, it need not for that
reason be true ; it assumes that central Asia is the home of all
nomadism and neglects the possibility or rather probability
that it is indigenous elsewhere ; it tends also to argue from
similarity of custom to similarity of race, neglecting to inquire
into the important question of environment. To make any
such theory of external origin necessary for the Vlachs, it would
have to be shown that though they possessed nomadic customs
they were living in a land where nomadism was impossible.
Yet the possibility of nomadism in the Balkans is proved by the
Vlachs themselves ; and to some extent a nomadic life is
essential to all Balkan shepherds, who have to seek different
pastures for winter and summer. Thus the Greek and Albanian
shepherds live a life similar in many ways to the Vlachs ;
but the peculiarity of the nomadism among the Vlachs is that
it is more developed, extends outside the shepherd class and
seems once to have included the whole race.

272 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

There is therefore no necessity on the grounds of nomadism
alone to look for the ancestors of the Vlachs as far afield as
Asia or even outside the Balkan peninsula. They can be found
in the shepherd tribes of the hills who compelled to move down
each winter to the lower slopes for pasture would come under
the influence of the Roman colonists and so become Romanised.
Here however the question arises of the connection between
the Vlachs of the Balkans and the inhabitants of modern
Roumania. According to one theory, which believes that
when the Romans left Dacia all Roman settlers were withdrawn,
the modern Roumanians are the results of a later movement
from the Balkans northwards. An opposite theory to this
is that the Roumanians are autochthonous Romanised Dacians
and the Balkan Vlachs the result of a movement to the south.
Both these theories, which as we have seen were suggested in
antiquity, have been fully developed by several modern
writers. The truth in all probability lies between these two
extreme views. When the Romans left Dacia it is most
improbable that all the Roman settlers and Romanised tribes
withdrew also, and on the other hand it is most probable that
the factors that Romanised Dacia were also operative in the
Balkans. Thus both the Vlachs in the Balkans, and the
Roumanians in Roumania are in the main indigenous, though
at different periods the centre of the race has shifted. To-
day it is north of the Danube, in the middle ages it was to the
south, and earlier still it may have been nearer its present
position. We may therefore conclude that the Balkan Vlachs
are for the most part the Romanised tribes of the Balkan
peninsula, reinforced perhaps at times by tribes from over the
Danube. Thus the Vlachs in the west would be for the most
part Romano- Ulyrians, in the south they might be Atha-
manians or other hill tribes mentioned by Strabo, but in the east
and along the central mountain range there would be a large
Thracian and Bessian element.

Macedonia became a Roman province in 146 B.C. and the
Romanisation of the hills probably began early. In the fifth
century a.d., as we have seen, the use of Latin had extended to
the native tribes ; then in quick succession came a scries of

THE HISTORY OF THE BALKAN VLACHS 273

invasions which resulted in a Slav-speaking district in the
centre of the peninsula. The effect of this was important ;
the Vlachs in the hills of the interior became probably more
isolated than ever before from the Greek-speaking districts
on the coasts, and from the Byzantine towns. The Slav and
Bulgarian conquests have perhaps more than anything else
preserved Vlach as a language by delaying the inevitable
advance of Hellenism. Greek influence on Vlach apparently
did not begin till after the Slavs themselves had begun to give
way to Greeks, and in fact not until the trade revival in the
eighteenth century did Hellenism spread rapidly among the
Vlach districts in the hills. This is clear from the Greek and
Slav loan words that are used in Vlach to-day ; the Slav words
belong to an early stratum and contain such words as maikd
mother, but the Greek words more recently acquired are
largely words for abstract ideas, reading, writing, and other
refinements of civilisation.

Though much of the history of the Balkan Vlachs is obscure,
one fact stands out clearly, that from the time when they first
appear in history they have been allowing themselves to be
absorbed gradually by the larger nations that surround them.
The natural increase of the hill population, the Turkish con-
quest and the slow advance of education and trade have all
been causes that have retarded their extinction. Neverthe-
less their numbers have been steadily, but slowly diminishing,
and they themselves have helped this by their lack of national
feeling, their dispersion and their power of self-effacement.
Sir Arthur Evans has found abundant traces in the north about
Uskub and throughout Dardania and Dalmatia that the Slavs
have there absorbed a Vlach-speaking people, and the same
process is going on in the Meglen to-day. In the west the
Farsherots are gradually becoming Albanians. Finally in the
south it is well known that Greece herself has drawn into
Hellenism large numbers of Vlachs and that in Thessaly a large
proportion of the town population is of Vlach origin.

APPENDIX I

I. THE GREEK TEXTS OF THE INSCRIPTIONS IN THE
CHURCHES AT SAMARINA

IN the texts which follow the conventional epigraphic signs for
marking missing letters where such are necessary to the sense, the
resolution of abbreviations and the ends of lines are used. All
the texts are in an archaic style, which is thought suitable for ecclesi-
astical purposes and is far removed from the Greek which Vlachs speak.
They contain in consequence many errors in syntax, grammar and
spelling, which a Greek scholar will notice at once.

I. Inscription in the Church of Great St Mary's, Samarina

"I" fjoTopTjOrj ovTos 6 6elos KTj irdvareTTTOS vaos rrjs VTTfpfvKoyrjyiivrji ivho^ov
A«TiToivr}S I TjiiS)v QeoTOKOV Mapias dp)(i{paTevovTos rov iTaviepokoyiOTaTov firjrpo-
noXiTov ic(vpi)ov K(vpl.)ov 'Avdifiov | Uparfvcov Se ev TavTTj rfj (KKXrjcTLa M;;;^aijX
Upevs K(ai) TrpoTOTranas k^ol) Xprjarov Zrja-rj Xrepyiov | Feoipyiov kol XprjcTTOV rav
Ifpiav iiTiTponevovTos 8e Fepao-iov TpiavTa(PvXov K^ai) rov avTov darrdvT] ktj
fTTKTTacria ki) Bia (rvv8pop,rjs rov TiniOTaTov 'ASa/x T^ovrpa ^ k?) iripav ^picrriavav
I rwv iv TT) X'^P'} Tai^T,'/ fls pvqp,6<Jvi>ov aloaviov (vacat) \ koi Bid x^ipos Xpfjorrov
lepios Koi 'Avraviov dSeXc^ov avTov viol Trajra ^ladvvov (k ttjs I8ias xdipas | (u eret
rc5 aaTTjpici) aaiKd iv prjvX 'lovXiai 30.

2. Inscription in the Church of St Elijah, Samarina

"I" r](TTopr]di] OVTOS 6 6(ios (c(ai) TvdvaeTTTos vaos rov dyiov eV|So^ov irpo<f)r}TOV
'HXiov Tov dea^vTov ^ dp)(i€paTev(i)v\Tos rov TraviepordTov pijrpoTroXirov Kvp{iov)
kvp(lov) Avdifiov 'i\fpaTfvovTos Se roij albtuipoTUTOV Kvp'iov Mr;;(a|^X Uptas <{a.\)
olKovofiov Koi Tepaalov Uptas ical Xpr]\(rTov tepe'cos eTrtrpoTreuovTOS 'ASo/x Xovrpe ^
TOV Koi I 2apapd K(ai) 8id ^^ipos Xprjo-Tov lepeas v{i)ov tov naTrd | loidvvov en ttJs
l^lai xapas iv ert Ta> (T(OTr]p[co acoKrj ^evpovaptov k TiXos.

Wf is a common Greek way of writing the sound tsA.
^ Probably an error for d€o<pT]Tov.

^ His descendants have changed their surname to Hondrozmu, supposed to be a
bye form of the Greek XovSpoo-iDjua.

276 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

3. Inscription in the Church of Little St Mary's, Samarina

Ilai'dyia ' OfOTune (ioiOicre rovs dovXovs {(r)ov tov\s KaTtjKov{vT)as ve t'i x^P^
TuvTi dj))(iei)ar(:3ovi'Tos Ta^\pri\ tov TravLepoTciTov Ke deoTrpo^Xirov t\s dyiovTarrjs
ifx\i)v fxirpoTToXeoi rpfjBevov ^ e^apx^^ f^ta f|o5ouy | 2r6/j(-y)ioy(t)ai't (v (ti 1799
Maluv 28 Zi(Ti pdaTopas.

4. Inscription in the Church of Little St Mary's, Samarina

'H piv Ka\ TraXai vaos Tijs Uavayias nfpljSXfTrTos ovtos ttoXecos ^apaphas \
(i\(\)u Kill avdis nepLKaXi]S fls Koapov dveKTicrdi] 81] 86^a Oeov twv oXav \ Upap-
j^ovi'Tus rf)? i]po)i' (nap)(!.as KXeu'oii Tevvadiov Xdrpov re r;}? j aocfilas, fTripeXta 8f
TroX(X)ov peTa C^Xov Zijctt} 'E^dp)(ov yeveds 'K.aT{Qr]pi\xov. yepovTfS fXdtre,
dveXdiT€ vfo\, yvvaiKes 8pdpeTe, e8S) 01 | Trapdtvoi, Koi Trpo(TKVvrjT€ Ofo) tw ovpavLca
iv (f)6j3a) '^I'x^s KOL I Kap8ias fv eri 1 865 Avyov(rrov 2 Mdcrropay Tidvr]^.

5. Inscription in the Church of the Monastery of Ayia Paraskevi,

Samarina

Ovtos 6 vaos rrjS \ dyrjas ev86^{ov) 6crrjoiT\apdei'opdprr)pos | r(o){} XpKTTOv
UnpaaKej^lrjs fKTi'^adr] ^^ dno ttj\s ev<TapKLt]tTt]i> etl 171^.

6. Inscription in the Church called Ayios Sotir at the
Monastery of Samarina

"I" i<TTopi6fi OVTOS d delos ii{ai) TravtrenTos vaos tijs dy'ias ev\8d^ov oaionapOfvo-
pdpTvpQS K{a\) ddXT](p6pov tov X(picrr)ov IlapacrKevTJs \ dp^i-fpaTevovTos tov
vavupordrov K-{a\) OfOTrpo^XrjTov priTpo7ro\XiTov dyiov Tpe^aLvmv K{vpl)ov
K{vpl.)ov BapdoXopaiov 81' imaTadias \ <{a\) crvv8poprjs twv fvpicTKopevoyv dytcou
TraTeputv iv rfj dy'ia \ povrj tovti] Sta ;^«/)6y rcoi/ (iireXSv ArjptjTpiov ^(al) | MrjxarjX
duayvcoaTOV K(ai) dvayvdxTTov IlaTr{d) 'loy^dwov) e/c Tijs iSt'as ;^a)pas | ^apapivas
(V eTfi Tw (T(x)TTjpl(i) aaid ev prjvl \ 'OnTopfipLO) le eVfXeto)^?; 86^a T(3 dyloi Sew.

^ Except for the last two words which are in cursive characters the inscription is
throughout in capitals.

^ We are unable to explain these two words satisfactorily. We have been told
that ^ is an abbreviation for Xari^T] (liadzhi, pilgrim) which does not seem to help
much. It might stand for xwpas and the phrase might mean "exarch of the land of
Ghrevena."

APPENDIX II

II. BETROTHAL, WEDDING AND OTHER FESTIVAL
SONGS

MOST of the songs referred to in Chapters VI and VII have been
pubHshed elsewhere as will be seen in the notes and conse-
quently there is no need to give the original texts. But in a
few cases the songs do not seem to have been published or else the
published versions are different from those used at Samarina. So we give
the original texts of those songs as we took them down on the spot.
Here and in Appendix III our object has been to write the Greek songs
so that a Greek scholar can understand them and at the same time to
indicate how the Vlachs pronounce Greek. They speak one of the North
Greek dialects in all of which the rule is that unaccented i and u dis-
appear and unaccented e and o become i and u. The Greek letters are
to be pronounced as in Modern Greek, i.e. /3 is the English v, vr is nd, jxtt
and ^j3 are both nib, y before i sounds is equal to an English y and yy and
•yK are like the ng in finger. Latin letters are used to indicate sounds
for which the Greek alphabet has no symbols ; h and d are the same as in
EngUsh, g is the hard English g as in gape, o-h is the English sh and
dfh the English /. Three common Vlach sounds occur of which two
X' ( = Italian gl) and v' ( = Italian gn) occur in Greek as well and so are
represented by Greek letters. The third is the peculiar Roumanian
vowel a for which we use the same symbol as in Vlach.

I. Betrothal Song

YliTpa ere nirpa TrtpTrorco, Xtdcipi ae XiOctpi..
Uov va '/3pco avvTpovcPov gaXo, koXo k\ Tifirjixh'ov ;
2av d' (iXnvyov tov yprjyovpov, aav doD yopyb ^iiiyapi.,
'2au dfj yvvcuKa ti) gaXfj, vanov Tifxdfi tov av8pa rj,
5 '2av Svo) ddip(f)dK.ia dyyapSiaKU vaTrovvi dyaTrrjp.eva,
Ki Twpa 'fi^rjKi TreipaafJios yia va tovs ^ixovpi(rrj,
K\ T elv' T] ^(j)opp.i) va rovs l^pV yta va tovs '|tX"''/''"".V >
*I(TeTf dp.ir(\ia «x'''"«, xovpd(Pia va poipuaTi,
"Ocra '$• Ti] p-ecri] k\ koKci, wdpi Ta i) dcfjtvTtd aov,
10 K' oara '? TT] ciKpa k\ kokci, Bcoa Ta 's tov d8ip(f)6 ixov,
Tedoia ^(f)opp.r] va tovv IfipfiS va nas va tov aK0VTOJ(rr]S.
277

278 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

2. Song for the Shaving of the Bridegroom

'2 TTj TTfTpa KcWiTL yafilipos,
K' r] irirpa anokvKi vipo
Tlo. va ^vpicrovv to ga/x/3po.

To X^'P' '"'^^ '^^^ '^'^P't'
5 'Ex" Kovnixdri p,d\oviia
'Apyupo ^vpd(pi
Ivpvi dyd\(a, dyaXfa
Na prj pauaj] Tpi)(a.

3. Song for the Dressing of the Bride

2ea dvcoyfia, <rfa /carcoyeia,
2ea TCI '^|/•^;Aa (Tfpatyia,
Pov)(l.T(Tha p.ov Kpvfipfva,
'2vpe fidva pov, ndp^ ra,
5 Nv(prj dfXov va yivov
Na aTavpovirpov(TKVvi](Tov
Kt X^'P"* "" (piKrjaov.

4. Song for the Combing of the Bride's Hair

Napyvpo pov ^t4vi
'2vpvi. oyaXea, dyaXsa,
Na /i^ pa'iiar] Tpi)(a,
Tplx^a drro tqv KKpdXi,
5 Ki Ta nepvei ^evovs,
Kt TO. Kdvfi dpdyia.

5. Song when the Bride is brought out

Loara n' ti, arak'ira n' ti,

mor mushata mea !

Kseanilc n' Isi dcadira,

mor gugutsha mea !
5 kseanile zh dipartoasile,

mor mushala mea 1

Di tse afurn'ie, mor muma mea,

di mi aghunish di kasa n' ?

Nu ti aghunii mor feala mea
10 ka ti pitrek a kasa ts

slii la nikuk'irata ts.

APPENDIX II 279

6. Song when the Bride's family departs

Ntcreir rravra da (^vyrjri,, &pa eras KaXrj.
T.av ban. utto ttj [xavovXa fiov, x'-P'-'''^f^o.'^(^-

7. Song when the Bride's family departs

Kti/jjcra/it /xi top rfKiov, Tvayn apya fii tov (f)iyydpi.
'ly' op)(ovp.i Kt (TV KOLfMatri, '^vwa ficoprj va ^fjs k\ vacri.
Map' KavpevTj Tl\aTa[xajva tI 'vi ra Kovpaaia Tr'6)(€is ;
Povfiv'ioTTovXes, TovpKovTTOvXes, Kt fiiKpes apxovvTOVTrovXes,
5 KddovvTi '■v^jyXa cri kloitti kI dyvavrevovv to. <apd^ia
Hbp^ovvTi OTTO TOV Miat]pi (f)ovprovp.€va fu (pKiaalSi.

8. Song when the Bride's family reaches home

AetVei Koprj an' rrjv avXij,
AeiVei k\ an' tov ixa)(aXd,
AftTTfi k\ an Tr] p-dva TS,
AeiTTei Kt air' tu dblp(^id ts.

9. When the Bride goes to fetch water

2av epdf] 'h.v6iT(ja yia vipo,
Ntpo va firju dfjv 8u>(ti]TI.
Mdi'' g\ va Tr)v '^iTa^rjri,
NavdtTcra voiov dyanas ;
5 Toi/ TidvvT] Top. hpapd-TevTrj.

10. When the Bride draws water

Umble sora, vearsa frate,
Tra inatea ali surate.

II. When the Bride returns from the conduit

Na l^l^pfj Tj TTldlpd jJLOV

H'op^^ovpi an' ttj jSpvcn
Kpvovp.€vr], nayovp,(vr),
Na '/3pco TT] (padid va pfvt],
5 Kt 7-17/1 b;jra (})ovpv(.a(T[X(VTj.

28o THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

12. SOXG WHEN THE ArUMANA PROCESSION STARTS

Ea mundritsa tsi i mushata
Alb, arosha ka k'iraua !
Ea mundritsa di pri k'eptu
ka si pare birbek aleptu !
5 Ea mundritsa di pri poale
ka si pare ka kash di t foale.

13. Song when the Arumana reaches a conduit

BpvcrovXa TTiTpovKayyCka
Aa)(r fias vipo va TTLovpi
Net td^s nios Tpayov^ovfjii.

14. Song for Christmas Eve

Kolinda, mclinda,
da n' maie kulaklu,
ka s afla Hristolu
tu pahnia a boilor
5 di frika uvreilor.

15. Song for Christmas Eve

KoXti^Sa, pfXivda,
Aw fjiov hdhov KXuvpct,
N(t TT(ip.i Ki TrapfKia.
2a (f)(Tov, naXXiKapLa,
5 2a (j)iTov (ci Tov xpovov.

APPENDIX III

III. THE GREEK KLEPHTIC SONGS USED TO ILLUSTRATE
THE HISTORY OF SAMARINA

THE following songs all of which are referred to in the history
of Samarina in Chapter V were collected by us in the village
itself and are as far as we know unpublished with the exception
of the first, of which a version has been printed.

I. Yanni al Preftu

Tt etv' Ta haipiaKia n'op^^ovvTi dir^ r' Povjiv'io tt] pa^^rj ;

K rj Tiavvqi xa/iovyeXaa-i, Tapd^ei tov Ki.(f)a\i,

" M bepi/ei T] ^oiVT] TO cmadl, Trepvei kI to dov(j)(Ki."

Kt Kcivei TOV dj'7](povpov aav 'p6p(j)o neXia-TeXi,
5 K' 17 fidva r' cIttoij kovtu tov (tkov^h k\ ^iXa^ei,

"Tlov Tras Tiatnn] pov povvaxos St;^^? Kava kovtci crov ;"

" Kt Tt Toiis 6iXov Tovs TTOvXkovs ; TTcivov k\ povva)(6^ pov."

2(11/ ^avei Kt ■}(^ov)(OVTi^i crav liKovyov ("iapfidrov.

"Hoi/ Trari ctkuX* 'ApiSai'idu'i, kI cre7s ^pe KovXovv'iatTfs ;
10 Iya> et'/i.' 17 Tuivvrjs t Trmra, Tiavv^ tov Yiaira Nt/coXa.

Aei/ €11/ iSo) ret TpifBiva, 8ei> fivi tov Zayopi,

Aev eiv i8a> r} Amord, k\ oXa tci BXaxov^wpia.

iSw TO Xev 'ylrrjXa l^ovvd, '\//r;Xa 's Ti] lapaplva,
14 liov TTOvXipovv piKpa iritia, yvvaiKis k\ KovpiTcria.

Versions of this song have been published by Aravandinos, "Aa-paTa
'Hndpov, p. 44, No. 51 ; and Khristovasilis, "eBviko. "AapaTa, p. 188,
No. 39 ; of. Papahagi, Litieratura Poporand, p. 1008, No. xiii.

2. Dhukas

T' eii'' dov KaKO ttov yeviTi TOVTrjv ttjv li38ovpd8a ;
Moii 'yeXacrav, pov '7rXdvi\lrai> 01 (tkvXoi ol hpaTipoi,
Kt povTvav, "A'ltlt AovKa pov 'yjrrjXa '? ti) 2apdpu'a
hpuTipoi yui va yevovpi 's Ta ScoSeKO 'jSayye'Xta."
5 ^Tavpo KpaTovcr V rit xtipia tov, '/3ayyeXta \ipiToicri,

282 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

K' f) Traydvici tovs Ve'rpouo"t rpovyvpi 's r p.ovaaTi]pi.
Tov AovKU ea vi<pa>i'a^av, Toi" Aovkq ea vi\4yovv,
"Ea e/3ya, ej3ya AovKa jjlov, e/Sya va vrpocrKvvrja-ijs."
"Aev €t/it vu^' va TrpocrKVva>, kI ;(€ipta va (^Ckrjcrov.
10 'lycb '/ii AovKas ^^UKOva-Tos, 's to gdcr/io '^aKovaiiivos.
Miva fie '^e'p' 6 ficicriXids, p\ '$epei kI 6 fii^vprj^."

3. Leoxidiia al Hadzhibira

Ae 6eXov fidva KXidjiara, 8e dekov pvpiovKoyia.
M(va fii KXeyovv rd lj3ovvd, fie K\ev to. B\axov)(0)pia,
Me Kkaiet r] vv)(Ta k\ avyrj, r ciarpo k1 to (piyydpi,
Me K\ev K oi vv(})€S tov Xad^lu', vixpes tov Xad^hihipov.
5 '2 Toi) TToXdOvpL \ddovvTav k\ '\j/-iKovTpayov8ovaav,
"Oaoi Sta/3ari kI av nepvovv 6Xo\ tovs epovTovcrav'
" Mffv e'lbaTL tov vioKa fias avTov tovv Atouvt'Sa ;
" Ni/ieir I'^es tovv e'ldaftav ae KXe(f)TLiid Xrjfiepia,
Nel^av dpvdKia Tr'oyj/ivav, Kpidpia aovfiXrjpiva.
10 Tovv Aiovvi8a '(Sdpicrav tov hpcoTov naTriTdvov,

Hov TjTav hapu'iKi \ Ta IBovvci k\ <pXdp,^ovpov 'y tovs KXc(f)Tis."

4. Dhimitraki al Pazaiiti

To ^fiddirav t\ yeviTi viTovrrfv ti]v il3bovfiu8a ;

t^iTOVTTfv l^8ovfia8a tov ArfprfTpdKrf '(idpiaav.

'naiyrjcre 6 fiavpos 's tov 'x^cupio y\rrjXa 's Trf AifirfviTcra

Na Trdprj to d^yiX'ia vd irairf '$■ tov Aiovviba.
5 T^ (TTpdTa dnov Tralyivi, ti] CTTpdra ttov Trrjyaivei

Tpels TovpKOi vKTTavpova-i 's ti) iKKXrjaid ott tu 8ev8pa.

Tpia papTivia Tohovaav Ta Tpla 's Trfv apd8a,

NeVa Toiiv hepvei l^aBipfia k\ to aXXn 's tov Trov8upi,
9 Toil Tp'iTov TOV (papfidKLpov KaraKapbls tovv hepvei.

5. Yeorghakis Karadzhas

'lae'is TTOvXiu ott' to TpifSivo, k\ drfSovia an to KovpuTi,
2ai/ Trari (carou 's r' "Aypa(pa, k\ Kfirou '$• tov PapaiiKOV,
Awcrrt )(afil3epi. 's tt) gXicfiTovpiu kI 's oXovs tovs KaniTdvovs,
To Gapadfha tov (3dpL(Tav \ tov ejirfpov KovpdTi.
5 "RyifKe 'pTrpocrTa 's re? (}}apiX\es yiu vd tovs x^P^"''^^'^!!-
IIouAi' xapdT(Ti lyvpifSi Vo 'vd /xid^liid to npdpa.
'MnpocTd TOV hepvovv pi tov koXo vd ndvi 's to k«Xo tov.
" Kdrcrt TiapydKi] (f)p6i'ipa, Kdrai rd nLvovpeva,
'Nf^fS fids l^iyvfivovai avTos 6 (tkvXos ZhovpKas,
10 Mas V^pi Xipis 'iKaTo k\ l^hovplvTa Kd-trnis."

APPENDIX III 283

" AvTos naXa a-us fKCfxi, ki 'yco rt 6a (ras Kcivov ;
HovXv xapdrcTi lyvpif^i V6 'va /itd^htd to irpapa.
2av doKovai 6 Di'Xt Zijo-' ttovKv tov KaKOv(f)dvgi,
Ki TO TaiKOvpi lihpa^i k\ s to Ki(pa\i t ^avei.
15 Sai/ 8ev8po dpaia-TiKi, aav KVirapiacn ire^Tei.

Mavpa TTOvkia tovv €K\iyav, k.1 acnrpa t Tpoyvpovcrav.

6. Yeoryios Yioldhasis

Tpeis TTip8iK0v\es KadovvTav 's r;) 2p6XtKav drj pdxTj'
Nt/iv'ia Tijpdei to. Tidvviva, k fj aWr] kut ttjv Goi'rcra,
Toil TpiTov TOV piKpoTipov TTjpdei TT] '2dpapiva.
Stjkou vair' avTov Fecopyt pov, 'yjz-rjXa 's to KapaovXi.
5 Nj; jrayavia pas 'TTeTpovai, pas 'rrripav do KKpdXia,
bpoora pas (pepovv da y^ovpv la, k\ 'Triad) fj naydva.

7. Ghushu al Dhispuli

To pddiTav Ti yevLTL tovtov tov KaXovKatpi ;
Ot iiX€(pTis iTTpovCTKvvqcrav k\ oXa to. KanixavaTa.
Toils 'yeXocri, Toiis 'TrXdviyf/i. 6 86Xiovs KovpavTapovs'
Tovs (Itti, " Tid Kovmaa-Ti iSoj rrovcrovXes va ads Soxrov."
5 Ki avToX pavpol 'yiXdcTTrjKav k\ ^KXtiaKav '? tt] avXrj dov.
Hrav 17 &pa e^, [(pTci Kara tov pLarjptpi.
Mov)(Tap 'A-yay aav doKOvai, ttovXv tov KaKov(f)dvgi.

8. Ghushu al Dhispuli.

Mov yiXaaav, pov 'nXdviip'av to. Tp'ia BXaxovx^mpia,
Na^e'Xa, ki tov IltpijSoXi k' 17 86Xia ^dpdpiva,
Mou 'yiXaaav k ol (f)iXoi pov voi aiivXoi TroTpciiTi,
Kl povirav, " al'di dpx'ijye, vaidl vd TrpovaKVvrjarjs,"
5 Kt povTvav, " aldi Vovahov pov, vaidl i/a TrpovaKvvrjatjS,

No jTpovaKVVTjar]! 's tovv \)aah.d pea' tov TldgaTa' tov aniTi"
Ma? 'irripav k1 pas ebrjaav vol aKvXoi 'Ap^avtTi.
Mas Kdvovv binXa to. t/Souva, dnrXd /car' Toi) dii/'idXi,
Els TTjv ^ovpKav pas '^rjpepovaav, '? to. Tidvviva pas irdvovv.
10 Mar 'nripav k\ pas 'Kpepaaav ^•o^ oKuXot 'ApjSaviTi.

Line 8. div'idXi is unintelligible : probably the line should read, May
Kavovv StVXa to l^ovvd kutii tov dfiXivdpi.

9. The Troubles of 1886

'PobovXa OTTO Toil 'SpoXma, nevKa drr' ttj 2,dpdpiva,
^tTov vd prjv avoi^iTi, (piTov vd papavdrJTi.

284 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

Not BXa;(Oi 8ev fias (jxivgav tvov fj-eaa arr tov 'PcojiiaiiKO.
"AXXot TTayrjcrav kqt t' "Aypa(f)a, k\ a'XXot Kara tt] 'PevBa
5 YlipaoTfpoi 'f Tri SXircrllai'i;, Kavus 8ev 6h 'TTovfifivri,

Kt aWoi efiivav KaraKafXTrls, KarciKafiTrls s tovs Kap-TTovs.
navadifia tov avriov tov Zrjai D^hi/xouflldga,
AvTos flvi 6 a'lTios, avTos yivgi iTia.
'nijpi TO gdcr/xo 's to Xaifxo k\ o\a ra B\axov)(6)pia.
10 Mevovv KovpLTcria avvnavSpa, nibui appa^ovviaapeva.

10. The War of 1897.

May T)\di (ivoi^i TTiKprj, tov KaXovKaipi fxavpov.
Aev (cXe're ;^copef k\ ■)(ovpia k\ (rei? /3pe jSiXafTia ;
T' etV' dou KaKO ttov yeviTi tovtov tov KaXovKalpi ;
'^€TOV 6a yfivr] TroXifiovs, 'iXXa? /xi ttj DovpKia.
5 'Htov napa(TKev6l3pa8ov, '2a^^dTo tov \a(dpov,
K' oi TovpKOL IviKijaav, ^Trrjpav drj QecTaaKia.
'Ede^ Uacrhas pov^6\ia(ri 'rrov /xeV '$■ Trjv 'A/ntXdi'a,
'2 tov TovpvaQov '^iptpova-i, 's ttj Adpacra yiopaTL^ei.
Ad)(fi 'fiepa ttj haaxaXid p,'i to XpicrTos dvfCTTrj.
10 BpicTKei Ta KOKKiva r alya, Kpidpia (TOV^Xrjpfva.
Ki Trepvei d(^dpva Ta xovpia p.i-XP'- '''"^ BiXiaiiTLVov.

APPENDIX IV

IV. SELECT TEXTS TO ILLUSTRATE THE VLACH
LANGUAGE

THE few texts here printed have been chosen to illustrate Chapter
XI and the account there given of the Vlach language. With
the exception of the first two, the songs and tales have been col-
lected by us ourselves during our travels amongst the Vlachs. As regards
the folk songs it is to be noted that the old songs are as a rule in short
lines and do not rhyme. A song in which the lines rhyme in pairs is new
and probably not more than thirty years old. We have given three
such modern songs from Samarina, Nos. 10-12 below. Of these three the
first has references to Samarina customs such as their fondness for wine,
and their nomadic habits. The third deals ^\ath families staying in
the plains and not coming up to the village for the summer, and also
with the emigration of the able bodied young men to America. The
second of the three is one of a large class of personal songs which are
very popular at Samarina. There are two men in the village who
continually compose new ones which they sing at festivals. They do
this not for gain, but for amusement ; and neither of the two song
writers can be said to have had much education. This song writing is
not due to the Roumanian propaganda, for every now and again some
one else will make up a topical and personal song, and we have heard
muleteers singing them. That Samarina delights in such songs and
thinks no ill of them shows how cheerfully they take life in the summer.
The translations appended have been left in as simple a style as possible
so that with their aid the original texts may be understood quite easily.

A. Folk Songs

Tsintsi an' n'i alagai Five years long I walked

pri ning amare, near the sea,

sha altsa tsintsi mi primnai. and another five I wandered.

Tru gradina vruta n'i aflai I found my beloved in a garden

iu durn'a sum trandafir. where she was asleep under a

rose tree.
285

286

THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

Disfeatse okl'i atsel' lail'i

di mi mutreashte ;
disfeatse gura di asime
sha mi zburashte ;
lo " lu eshti dzhone tuta iara

kand n'i easte rakoare ;
ma yin primaveara
kand mi h'ivxeashte ? "

She opens her eyes those black

eyes
and looks at me ;
she opens her mouth of silver
and addresses me ;
" Where are you boy all winter

long
when I am cold ?
But you come in the spring
when I have fever."

This we have taken from Weigand, Die Aromunen, ii. p. 90, No. 60.
A Greek version of it is known at Samarina and at Verria. It is
probably an old Vlach song that has been translated into Greek.

2. VLAHO-LIVADHI

Bre dzon, fitsori di Koz-ni
di naparte d araUj
kar si va tshets Kastoria
tshe easte hoara mare
5 si pitritshets un masturii,
si h'iba dzhone multu,
si pilekseaska marmare,
s adara groapa mare.
Sa stau mbrostu tri si ved

10 si ved sa polimsesku,
sa dhipla mihrisesku.
Tshez va sa dzats a mum mea
ka eu m insurai ;
soakra mindai ploatsile

1 5 sa lailu lok mg'are.

Ho gallant lads of Kozhani

from beyond the river,

if you go to Kastoria

which is a large town

see you send a mason,

let him be very skilled,

let him cut marble

to make a big tomb.

Let me stand upright that I may

see,
that I may see to fight,
and bend double.
Go and tell my mother
that I have married ;
as mother-in-law I have taken the

slabs,
and the black earth as my wife.

We have taken tliis from Weigand, Olympo-Walachen, p. 116,
No. xii. The idea of the last six lines occurs in many Greek klephtic
songs, e.g. Passow, Carmina Popularia, Nos. civ, cv, cvi, clii, clvi,
clx, clxv. It is possible that these, like the Samarina klephtic
songs (see Appendix II), were written by Vlachs, and therefore there
seems no reason to suppose that the idea has been borrowed by
Greek from Vlach or vice versa. In any case this song seems to be an
old one.

APPENDIX IV

287

3. VERRIA

Naparti di lai amare

sh alavdara sh na mushata.

Kum si n' fak lailu si u vedu ?

;^gallika ts kallu dzhuneali
5 zh du ti, da ts pan di mushata.

Buna dzua lea mushata.
G'ini vinish lai dzliuneaU.
lu n' ts u mata lea mushata ?

Mum mea dusi la na numta,
10 la na numta vasilkeaska

di si fatsi prota nuna.

The Verria Vlachs sing this
Baieasa, Weigand, Aromtmen, ii. p

Beyond the black sea

they praised a beautiful maid.

What am I to do, poor wretch, to

see her ?
Mount your horse boy,
and go, away to the beautiful

maid.
Good day fair maiden.
Welcome boy.
Tell me where is your mother, fair

maiden.
My mother is gone to a wedding,
to a royal wedding
and is become first godmother.
at betrothals. It is also known at
. 8, No. 6.

Dzhoka pionellu
tu livadzle verdza.
Roaoa shi lun'ina,
feata si nverina.
5 Peanile 1' kadu,
dzonile 1' arape,
feata si nverina
Mor nu ti nverina,
ka pri poarta ts treku,
10 Salona mi duku.

Dza n' tsi vrei s ts aduku.

Baire din Pole
shi funde di sta Seara,
k'aptine di Verria,
1 5 pudhimate di Larsa.

This song; is also known at

4. AMINTSHU

The peacock dances

in the green meadows.

Dew and sunlight,

the maiden is downcast.

His feathers drop,

the youth seizes them,

the maiden is downcast.

Come maiden do not be downcast

for before your door I pass,

to Salona I go.

Tell me what you wish me to brin^

you.
Necklaces from Stamboul,
and tassels from Seres,
a comb from Verria,
boots from Larissa.
Turia and x\meru.

Fudzi, fudzi fumii !
Katra iu s mi duku ?
La k'atra k'ipitoara.
Tsi si maku, tsi z beau ?

5. BAIEASA

Go away, go away smoke.
WTiere am I to go to ?
To the peaked rock.
What am I to eat, what am I to
drink ?

288

THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

5 Unu pulishoru.

Ku tsi si lu tal'u ?

Ku parlu di la strunga.

Parlu iu easti

L arsira fokurli.
lo Fokurli iu sundu ?

L astcasira ploiurli.

Ploiurli iu sundu ?

Li biura kaprili.

Kaprili iu sundu ?
IS Li makara luk'l'i.

Lukl'i iu sundu ?

Loara kalea di Briaza.

A little bird.

With what am I to kill it ?

With the post from the sheepfold.

Where is the post ?

The fires burnt it.

Where are the fires ?

The rains put them out.

Where are the rains ?

The goats drank them.

Where are the goats ?

The wolves eat them.

Where are the wolves ?

They took the road to Briaza.

6. LAKA

More Armana sh mor mushata
tsi n' stai maramnata ?
Tats lai dado, nu mi kreapa
ka n'i dzhonile 1 am tu kseane.
5 Dzatse an'i am tsi 1 ashteptu ;
nika trei an'i vai 1 ashteptu.

shi dapoia vai mi maritii,
shi n'i I'au un dzhone aleptu,
aleptu shi pramateftu.

This song is known at Baieasa, and Weigand, Aromimen, ii. p. 86
No. 56, has a version from Monastir.

Vlach maiden, beautiful maid
why do you stand so melancholy ?
Hush mother, do not worry me,
for I have my lad in foreign parts.
For twelve years I wait for him ;
for three more years will I wait for

him,
and then will I marry,
and I will take a chosen lad,
a chosen lad and a merchant.

7. SAMARINA

By marbles four or five,

by fountains six,

there sleeps a maid alone,

alone and yet betrothed.

And her mother said to her,

to her her mother says,

" Arise, arise oh daughter mine,

a bride will I make you,

since the kinsfolk come to take

you,
kinsfolk from the bridegroom."

This is one of the three regular songs sung at a betrothal at Sama-
rina, see p. 107. A Greek version, probably a translation, is known at
Verria and in Epirus, Zuy imcfjdos 'Aycot-, p. 166, No. 310.

La patru tsindza marmare,

la shassile fandan'i

aklo doarme feata singura,

sifigura shi isusita.

Shi dadasa ma I'i dzatsia,

shi dadasa I'i dzatse,

" Ea skoala, skoala h'il'e amca

niveasta va n' t adaru,

ka yin kuskril'i tra s ti I'a,

10 kuskri di la ghambrolu."

APPENDIX IV

289

8. SAMARINA

Nu ti arade feata n'ika,

nu yinu la noi.

La noi are vale mare,

Nu vai pots s u tretsa.
5 Peashte mare vai mi faku,

zh valea vai n' u treku,

sh eu la voi vai yinu.

Nu ti arade feata n'ika,

nu yinu la noi.
10 La noi are mundz analtsa.

Nu vai pots tra s tretsa.

Pitrunikl'e vai mi faku^

sh munzl'i vai n' I'i treku,

sh eu la voi vai yinu.
15 Nu ti arade feata n'ika,

nu yinu la noi.

La noi are soakra araua.

Nu vai pots z banedza.
Soakra araua, noara buna,

20 doaule vai tritsem,
zh doaule vai banam.

Make no mistake little girl,

do not come to us.

By us there is a great river.

You will not be able to cross it.

I will make myself a big fish,

and I will cross the river,

and I will come to you.

Make no mistake little girl,

do not come to us.

By us there are lofty mountains.

You will not be able to cross them,

I will make myself a partridge,

and I will cross the mountains,

and I will come to you.

Make no mistake little girl,

do not come to us.

By us there is a cruel mother-in-
law.

You will not be able to live.

Cruel mother-in-law, good
daughter-in-law,

we will get on the two together,

and two together we will live.

9. SAMARINA

Doi mundza analts sh grei ;
dupa munde na livadhe vearde ;

tu livadhe na fandana aratse.
Mi aplikai z beau theam di ap
aratse,
5 di n' arkai okl'ulu andreptu,
di n' vidzui un dzhone aleptu,
di sh avea sh un mer arosh tu

mana.
Dzhone kat al dai merlu ?

Feata un okl'u di atau.

Two mountains tall and cruel ;
behind the mountain a green

meadow ;
in the meadow, a cold spring,
I stooped to drink a little cold

water,
and I cast my eyes ahead,
and I saw a chosen lad,
and he had a red apple in his

hand.
Boy for what do you give the

apple ?
Maiden one of your eyes.

A version of this song from Monastir is given by Weigand,
Aromunen, ii. p. 86, No. 57.
19

290

THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

10. SAMARINA

Dumnidzalekat h'ii mare,

dai la tuts kat una hare.

N avem sh noi lail'i na hare.

Kand bem yinu vrem kandare.

5 Samarina hoara mare
kathe dzua ka pazare.
Tsi mshata hoara n avemii !
Toamna vdzimu, u alasamii.
Prumuveara di pri Martsu
10 na fudzi mindea dift gapu.
Na bagam mare frundidha

kum s ishim tu patridha.

S na baneadza atsel'i tsi au oi ;

dupa el'i vnim shi noi.
1 5 S na baneadza tshehiikazl'i ;
dupa el'i yin k'iradzhazl'i.
Na vnim tuts ku haraua
ka, skapam di iarna greaua.

Lord how great thou art,

thou givest all a talent each.

We too poor wretches have a
talent.

When we drink wine we want to
sing.

Samarina is a big town,

each day is like a market.

What a fine town we have !

In autumn we go, we leave it.

In spring about March

our mind goes out of our heads.

We put great thought upon our-
selves

how to get up to our home.

Long life to those who have
sheep ;

after them we come too.

Long life to the shepherds ;

after them the muleteers come.

We all come with joy

because we have escaped from
hard winter.

II. SAMARINA.

Nu va avdzatsa voi lai Sam-

ran'atsa,
Yari la li la, iu duts lea Yana

mea ?
Tsi s featse la Baktshilarlu ?

etc.
S isusi sh Adhamlu al Tshutra,

etc.
5 di shi lo sh na kupatshara, etc.
Avdzara shi niposl'i al Guda,

etc.
Dusira pan la karavi, etc.
H'il'u al Biti al Mihula, etc.
shi u arak'i sh u lo naveasta,

etc.

Oh Samariniats have you not
heard,

Yari la li la where go you Yana
mine ?

What happened at Baktshilar ?
etc.

Adham al Tshutra became be-
trothed, etc.

and took a kupatshar, etc.

Guda's nephews heard, etc.

They went as far as the ferry, etc.
The son of Biti al Mihula, etc.
seized her and took her for his
bride, etc.

When this song is sung a sirto can be danced to it.

APPENDIX IV

291

12. SAMARINA.

Estan lipsesk fumeri di ng'os, This year families from below are

wanting,
girls from below are wanting ;
they do not come to us to Sama-

rina,
The poor things weep, they weep

in misery,
upstairs and downstairs.
The poor wretches cannot pay

their fare.
Curse take the reason
which became the cause.
Boys go to America.
Boys go, married men go,
boys of age go.
The girls keep vigil.

lipsesk feate di h'ima ;
nu na yinii Samarina.

Plang laile, plang maratile

5 pri t anoyi, pri t katoyi.
N au laile s plateaska aghoyi.

Panathima I'a etiulu
tsini s featsi itie.
Fug fitshori t Amerik'ie.
10 Fug fitshori, fug suratsa,
fug fitshori tu ilik'ie.
Featile baga aghrapnie.

B, Folk Tales

I. MUMA SHI FEATA

Eara una feata shi una muma shi muma nu vrea pri feata. U
agudia multii, shi adra lemnu. Masa u baga tu fokii ; arka tshinusha
tu gradina. Di s adra sakurafa. U lo sh u hipse tu davani. Shi una
dzua masa nu avea apa. Feata s skla shi adra pita, shi nasa nu iara
a kasa shi z duse ta s I'a apa. Shi ndriba pri mbl'erile, " Kari n' adra
pita ? " Shi alna pri davani feata. Shi apoia alanda dzua mbl'earea
vrea si z duka la bisearika shi s askumse dupa usha shi u akatsa shi u
tsanu n gasa. Turia

I. MOTHER AND DAUGHTER

There was a daughter (lit. girl) and a mother and the mother did not
like the daughter. She beat her m.uch and made her wood. Her
mother put it in the fire ; she threw the ash in the garden. She be-
came a packneedle. She took it and stuck it in the ceiling. And one
day her mother had no water. The daughter got up and made a
pasty, and she was not at home and had gone to get water. And she
asked the women, " WTio made me the pasty ? " And the daughter
had gone up on to the ceiling. And another day afterwards the woman
wanted to go to church and she hid behind the door and she caught
her and kept her at home.

292 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

2. KUKOTLU SHI GXlINA

Shi eara una mai ku un pap, avea un kukot ku na galina. Imna,
imna mai ku paplu shi kukotlu s alna sti alunu. Kukotlu kanta shi
galina shdea m pade shi 1' tsia, " Kukoate, kukoate aruka n' na aluna."
Shi arka na aluna shi skoase old'u a galinil'ei. Metagri galina,
" Kukoate, kukoate aruka ninka una." L' arka ninka una shi 1'
skoase sh aland okru. " Kukoate, kukoate aruka ninka una." Al'
skoase un tshor ; metagri galina pali, " Kukoate, kukoate aruka ninka
una." Shi arka ninka una slii 1' skoase aland tshoru. Plamplum
galina la katilu. Galina ku maia al' dzasira a katilui, " Afendi m,
afendi m, brea n' okl'l'l, brea n' tshoarle, tsi n' adara kukotlu ! "
Katilu kl'ima kukotlu, "Atsets kukotlu aoa ! " Adusira kukotlu aklotse ;
" Tsi ai di galina ? " " N' arupse smeana alunlu." Katilu aduse alunlu,
"Tsi aveai di smeana a kukotlui ?" "Tsi manka frandzile kapra ?"
dzase alunlu. " Atsets kapra aoatse," dzase napoi katilu. " Tsi nu
m pashtia gine pikurarlu ? " Pikurarlu al' dzase, " Tsi nu n' didea
pane doamna mea ? " Doamna dzase, " Tsi manka poarka alotlu ? "
" Atsets poarka aoa ! " Poarka nu gri tsiva ; " N' eara foame," dzase,
shi skapa. Amintshu (Metsovo)

2. The Cock and the Hen

And there was an old woman with an old man, she had a cock with
a hen. The old woman with the old man walked and walked, and the
cock climbed on a nut tree. The cock was crowing and the hen was
sitting down, and was saying to him, " Cock, cock throw me a nut."
And he threw a nut and knocked out the hen's eye. The hen called
again, "Cock, cock throw one more." He tlirew her one more and
knocked out her other eye too. " Cock, cock throw one more." He
knocked off her leg ; the hen called again, " Cock, cock throw one
more." And he threw one more and knocked off her other leg. Plam
plum the hen is off to the judge. The hen with the old woman said to
the judge, "Master, master, look at my eyes, look at my legs, see what
the cock did to me ! " The judge called the cock, " Bring the cock
here." They brought the cock there ; " What have you with the
hen ? " " The nut tree tore my drawers." The judge brought the
nut tree, " What had you with the cock's drawers ? " " Why did the
goat eat my leaves ? " said the nut tree. ' ' Bring the goat here," said
the judge again. " Wliy did not the shepherd feed me well ? " The
shepherd said, " Why did not my mistress give me bread ? " The
mistress said, " Wliy did the sow eat the yeast ? " " Bring the sow
here ! " The sow did not call out at all ; " I was hungry," she said,
and that's all.

APPENDIX IV 293

3. AUSHLU SHI Mo ASH A

Eara un aush ku una maosha sh avea un kukot sh una plitsS,.
Vine oara si ngatshara moasha ku aushlu, sh kafta di si mbartsara.
Plitsa kadzu ale moasha shi kukotlu kadzu al aush ; shi kafta kukotlu
si z duka tu kseane. Tatasu nu 1 alasa. " Oh'i, va mi pitrets tu
kseane, vai mi duku." E, tatasu tsia, " Nu ti pitrekii," shi apufasi di 1
pitriku. Alko iu z duse tu kseane, duse di skalsia la palate al vasil'e,
zhdiskalsire multa tsi fatsia afla una flurie. " Ka ka ka ! " dzase elu,
" aflai na flurie." Avdi h'il'lu al vasil'e sh ease di 1' u I'a fluriea,
Tsi adara elii ? Di parakalia multa lo napoi tu baktshe di skalsi di s
umblu di flurii. Dzase elu vine oara si z duka la tatasu. " Tora "
dzase a tatasui " spindzura mi sh I'a na drama sh agudia si vedz tsi
vai kada." Lo shi tatasu drama shi 1 agudish kade k'isavro di flurii.
S toarna tatasu zh dzase " Fitshori si lom tagharia shi V numiram."
Duk la moasha, kafta tagharia, shi moasha aundze tagharia di
katrani ta si s alakeaska flurii. Aushlu 1 akatsa inatea sh akatsara
di z batura doil'i aushan'i tsi eara mbartsatsa. Tradze un, tradze
aland zh vatamara moasha tu lok shi muri. Samarina

3. The Old Man and the Old Woman

There was an old man with an old woman and they had a cock and
a hen. The time came and they quarrelled the old woman with the
old man, and she asked and they parted. The hen fell to the old woman
and the cock fell to the old man ; and the cock asked to go to foreign
parts. His father would not let him. " No, you will send me to
foreign parts, I will go." His father was saying, "I am not going
to send you," and he decided and sent him. There where he went
to foreign parts, he went and was scratching by the king's palace, and
from all the scratching he did he found a gold piece. " Ka ka ka,"
said he, " I have found a gold piece." The king's son hears and comes
out and takes the gold piece from him. What does he do ? With
much entreaty he got back to the garden and scratched and filled
himself with gold pieces. He said the hour had come to go to his father.
" Now," said he to his father, " hang me up and take a switch and beat
me to see what will fall." And his father took the switch and beat
him and a treasure of gold pieces falls. His father turns and said,
" Boys let us get the bag and count them." They go to the old woman,
ask for the bag and the old woman smears the bag with pitch so that
the gold pieces should stick. Anger seized the old man and they set
to and they beat one another the two old people who had parted.
One hits, the other hits, and they killed the old woman on the spot and
she died.

294 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

4. UVREULU SHI PiKURARLU

Eara na oara shi un g'iro un tshelnik mare shi mult nikuk'ir sh avea
un pikurar mult pisto shi naundru tu namal'i avea sh un birbeatse mult
mare, shi 1' tsia I'aru. Zh vinea pikurarlu a kasa ; al' tsia " Kali
mera afendiko." " Kalo s ton bistiko, kum 1 ai oile shi I'arlu ? "
Shi una dzua loara zbor ku un uvreu mult nikuk'ir tra pikurarlu shi
tshelniklu al' tsia ka pikurarlu easte mult pisto shi nu poate si 1 arada
kan, shi bagara stihima ku uvreulu ka vai poata si 1' dzaka mindzhune.
Bagara tuta periusie sh adrara simvoli ghrapte, ka z dzaka mindzhune
pikurarlu si I'a tuta periusia al tshelniku shi ka si dzaka alithia si I'a
tshelniklu a lui. Si mta uvreulu, baga alte stran'e, alaksi furishaoa
shi z duse la oi shi mundria tra si 1 akumbara I'arlu. Shi pikurarlu al'
dzase, " Nu ts u dau." Al' deade dzatse lire shi nu 1' u dadea. Dutse,
s mta uvreulu. Ts s adara ? Z dutse a kasa shi I'a mbl'earesa shi u
aduse aklotse la oi shi pikurarlu s arase shi 1' deade I'arlu tra mbl'earesa.
Di kar al' lo I'arlu uvreulu, lo shi mbl'earesa shi z duse a kasa la tshel-
niku, shi tshelniklu dapoia pitriku un cm si 1' greaska al pikurarii.
Shi pikurarlu k'insi shi vnea kalea, tsia ku mindea ale karlibana.
Baga katshula pri karlibana shi zbura ku ea shi 1' tsia, " KaXi) 'fj-epa
d(f)(v8iK6 \" " KaXo 's TOP hicTTiKO, t\ x'^hapia;" " KaXfi." " IldJs Td)(£is ra
TTpu^ara;" " KaXa." ^'ToX'apo nSs tov e'x?;" " ^o0(n." " Nu dutse," al'
tsia ku minde. Vnea ma ngoa shi u baga napoi katshua shi tsia, " KaXfj
^fiipa d(f)ev8iK6 ! " " KaXo 's tov hiariKo, t\ xo-hdpia ; " " KaXa." " Has rax^is ra
vpojBaTa;" " KaXd." " To X'dpo rras tov i'xs ; " '' Tovi'cpayi SXvkos." -' Oh'i nu
dutse." Yine la poarta al tshelniku shi baga napoi katshua si 1' tsia,
" KaXf) 'p-ipa d(^ei'SiKO ! " " KaXo 's rov bioTiKo, rt ^('■^'^p'''^ > " " KaXd." " Hats
T'd;(etf TO. Trpo^ara ; " " KaXd." " Ilcur tov e^f to X'dpo ; " " 'll^yf yid. noprj^i-

Xr]p.a." " Aest easte bun, aest vai dzaku." Shi alna analt la tshelniklu
shi afla multa lume aklo, atsel'i tsi adrara ghraptele sh ashtiptara
pikurarlu tsi vai dzaka, mindzhune i alithia. Shi 1' dzase al tshelniku,
"KaXj} 'fiepa dcjievdiKO \" " KoXd '$■ tuv btortKo," al' dzaSe tshelnildu, " rt
Xahapia;" "KaXd." "11039 Td^fiS rd Trpo^ara ;" "KaXd." "To X'dpo vas
Tovexs;" Shi pikurarlu al' dzase, " Ilatft yid Kop-qi^lXi^p.a.'" Shi epidhis
ka spuse alithia al' lo tuta periusia al uvreu slii skapa. Shi earam shi
eu aklo shi n' dadea dzhumitate sh io nu vream ka am multsa.

Samarina

4. The Jew and the Shepherd Boy

Once upon a time there was a great and very wealthy shepherd and
he had a shepherd boy who was very trusty and among the sheep he had
a very big ram and he used to call it piebald. And the shepherd boy
used to come to his house, he used to say to him, " Good day master ! "
" Welcome to the trusty shepherd boy, how have you the sheep and the

APPENDIX IV 295

piebald ?" And one day they disputed with a very wealthy Jew about
the shepherd boy, and the shepherd was telling him that the shepherd
boy was very trusty and that no one could deceive him, and they made
a wager with the Jew that he would be able to tell him a lie. They
wagered all their fortune and made a written contract, if the shepherd
boy tells a lie the Jew should take all the shepherd's fortune, and if he
tells the truth the shepherd should take his. The Jew bestirred himself,
put on other' clothes, changed his dress and M^ent to the sheep and
was looking to buy the piebald. And the shepherd boy said to him,
" I am not giving it to you." He offered him ten pounds and he would
not give it to him. The Jew goes away ; he bestirred himself. Wliat
should he do ? He goes home and takes his wife and brings her there
to the sheep, and the shepherd was deceived and gave him the piebald
for his wife. Wlien the Jew took the piebald he took his wife too and
went to the shepherd's house and the shepherd sent a man to call to
the shepherd boy. And the shepherd boy started and was coming
on his way ; he was talking in his mind to his crook. He put his fez
on his crook and was talking with it and saying to it, " Good day
master ! " " Welcome to the trusty shepherd boy, what news ? "
" Good." " How have you the sheep ? " " Well." " The piebald
how is it ? " " It's dead." " It does not do," he was saying in his
mind. He came nearer and put his fez again (on his crook) and was
saying, " Good day master ! " " Welcome to the trusty shepherd boy,
what news ? " " Good." " How have you the sheep ? " " Well."
" The piebald how is it ? " " The wolf ate him." " No, it does not
do." He came to the shepherd's door and put his fez back again
and was saying, " Good day master ! " " Welcome to the trusty
shepherd boy, what news ? " " Good." " How have you the sheep ? "
" Well." " How is the piebald ? " " It's gone for a kiss." " This is
good, this is what I'll say." And he went upstairs to the shepherd
and found many people there, those who had made the contract, and
waited for the shepherd boy what he would say, a lie or the truth. And
he said to the shepherd, " Good day master ! " " Welcome to the
trusty shepherd boy," said the shepherd to him, "what news?"
" Good." " How have you the sheep ? " " Well." " The piebald
how is it ? " And the shepherd boy said to him, " It's gone for a kiss."
And since he told the truth, he took all the Jew's fortune and that's
the end. And I was there too and they offered me half and I would not
have it because I have much.

NOTES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY

CHAPTER I

The principal writers who have dealt with the Balkan Vlachs in general are
the following : —

Apa^avTivos, Xpovoypa(f)ia ttjs 'H-rreipov, and Movoypa<^ia TTfpi Kovrcro^Xaji^coi'.

Barbulescu, I., Relations des Roumains avec les Series^ etc.

Berard, V., Pro Macedonia.

Brailsford, Macedonia, its Races and its Future.

Bratter, Die Kutzowalachische Frage.

Diamandi, V., Renseignenients Statisiiques sur la Population des Balkans.

Eliot, Sir C, Turkey i?t Europe.

Evans, Sir A., Antiquarian Researches in Jllyricum, Archcsologia, vols. 48, 49.

Fortescue, A., The Orthodox Eastern Church.

Aa[X7rpi8r]s, 'UnfipwriKa MfXeTrip.aTa,

Lazar, V., Die Siidrufndnen (this contains a useful bibliography).

Leake, Researches in Greece, and Travels in Northern Greece.

Philippson, Thessalien und Epirus.

Pouqueville, Voyage de la Grece, and Mdmoire sur Plllyrie, etc., in M^m. de

PA cad. des Inscrpt., vol. xii.
2;^ti/ds', OdoiTTopiKov tjjs Maicedovias.

Tomaschek, Die alien Thraker, and Zur Kunde der Hiimus Halbinsel.
Tozer, Highlands of Turkey.
Weigand, Olympo-Walachen, Vlacho-Meglen, Die Aromunen aLXidiYns articles

in i\iQ Jahresberichte of the Roumanian Seminar at Leipzig.
"Koihas, 'H 'icTTopia rrjs ManedoviKtis 'YTrodea-ecos.
Xpvcroxooi, B\a)(oi Koi KovTcro/3Xa;^ot.
Other sources of information are the Encyclopcedia Britannica, the

MaKe^oviKov 'HpepoXoyiov, 1908-1912 (published in Athens), and the

linguistic papers of Miklosich in the Wiener Denkschriften.

P. 6. The book in question is the 'Eto-aycoyiK)) Ai^acDcaXta of Daniel which
was probably printed at the press of the Greek Patriarchate at Constantinople.
The signatures are in Greek type, and this feature and the same ornaments
are to be found in the Y..avoviKi)v /jtol ol Qeloi Kavova crvveCKey pivot Trapa
Xpia-Tocftopov Movdxov which was printed at the Patriarchate press in 1798.
There are copies of both these books in the British Museum.

298 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

CHAPTER II

P. i8. Hashia. In Greek the district is called Xdaia (pronounced
Khashia), but the name is probably derived from the Turkish k/iassa,
private or personal. This would suit a country full of chiftliks. In this
connection it is worth noting that till 1840 the villages of Pelion and
Magnesia were divided into Khasia and Vakuphia. The former according
to Maghnis seem to have been like chiftliks, but Yeoryiadhis' account does
not agree with this. See Urquhart, Sph-it of the East, i. p. 313 ; Philippson,
Thessalien unci Eptrus, pp. 152, 170; Mayvifs, nepirj-yrja-is rrjs Oeaa-aktas,
p. 43; Teoipyiddrjs, QfcraaXia^, pp. I04, 1 86 ; ^ApnjSavTLvos, Xpovoyi)a(pLa ttjs
'HTreipov, ii. p. 176.

P. 22. For accounts of the war of 1897 see, Rose, IVt't/i the Greeks in
Thessaly ; Bingham, With the Turkish Army in Thessaly.

P. 22. For the history of the bishopric of Ghrevena see, Gelzer, Patri-
archat von Achrida, esp. pp. 8, 16, 20, 35 ff., ii7ff., 136, 142 ; Bysantinische
Zeitschrift, 1892, pp. 256, 257: 1893, pp. 43, 59; Athenische Mitteilungen^
1902, p. 435 ; Le Quien, Oriens Christianas, ii. pp. 294, 323 ; Miklosich-
Muller, Acta et Diplomata, ii. p. 250 ; Ne'o? 'EXKijvoiiinjiicov, vii. p. 154.

P. 23. For information about the early history of Ghrevena see, Passow,
Carmina Popularia, Nos. xxi-xxiii, cviii, ex, cxxvi ; Pouqueville, Hist, de
la Regeneration de la Grece, pp. 61, 338 ; Pari. Papers 18^4, Correspondence
respecting the Relations of Greece and Turkey, p. 227 ; ''Kpa^avrivos,
Xpoi'oyparjna, i. pp. 64, 174, 195, 379 ; "/\.ap.aTa 'HTreipov, Nos. 27, 48, 61, 71,
8l,!9I) 93) 97) 98; 100-103, 113, 116, 117; Xprja-To^aa-iXrjs, 'EdviKii "^(rixaTa,
pp. 289, 294 ; Hfppai^os, 'laropia 2ov\iov koL Uapyas, I. p. 23 ; Aap.Trpi8rjs,
'Hneip. MeXerfjpaTa, iii. pp. 69 ff., v. p. 39, ix. p. 61.

P. 27. For further particulars about Ghrevena see the books already
given in the bibliography to Chapter I, especially Leake, Pouqueville,
Weigand, 'Apaliavnvos, and Sxtvay, cf. also Nicolaidy, Les Turcs et la
Ttirquie Contemporaine, ii. p. 229 ; MeXeVtoy, Temypacjiia (Venice, 1728),
P- 396.

P. 28. The word Varoshi which in modern Greek means suburb is
according to Gustav Meyer of Magyar origin and is connected with the
word varos town, and z'ar castle. Throughout Thessaly and South
Macedonia it occurs as the name of suburbs at Serfije, Okhridha, Elassona,
Pharsala and elsewhere. Since under Turkish rule the christians were
compelled to live in the suburbs and not in the centre of a town the word
Varoshi has come to mean the christian quarter of a town. How the word
strayed down into the Southern Balkans is obscure, but it even occurs as far
afield as Famagusta in Cyprus.

P. 29. On the Valakhadhes see, Weigand, Aro7nunen, i. p. 128 ;
Nicolaidy, Les Turcs et la Turquie Contemporaine, ii. p. 216 ; MoKfSovticov
'H/x€/)oXdyioi/, 191 1, p. 113. Their principal villages are Dovratovo, Kublari,
Subeno, Krivtsi, Tsurkhli, Triveni, Kastro, Dovrunista, Great Serini,

NOTES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY 299

Dovrani, Kira Kale, Vriashteno, Ventsa, Meseniko, Torista, Angalei,
Tshotili, Vaipes, Pilori, Bubushti, Yiankovo, Breshtiani, Nestimi, Zeligoshti,
Vrostani and Dhislapo.

P. 30. On the Kupatshari see, Weigand, Aromuficn, i. p. 130 ; 'Apa(3av-
Tivos, Xpovoypa(pia, ii. pp. 342 fF. Their principal villages are Bura, Divrani,
Vravonishta, Tshuriaka, Mesoluri, Dhelvino, Tuzhi, Dusko, Philippei (in
Vlach Filkl'i), Vodhendzko, Sharghanei, Lavdha, Lipinitsa, Tishta, Spileo,
Zalovo, Riakhovo, Paleokhori, Kosmati, Sitovo, Mavranei (in Vlach
Mavranle), Mavronoro, Kipurio which Leake calls Vlach, Zapando,
Labanitsa, and Monakhiti, Aravandinos also gives Pulitsari and Kusko,
which is perhaps an error for Dusko, as speaking Greek and Vlach. But
he omits several of the above, and states that Samarina speaks Greek and
Albanian, so his information is probably not absolutely correct.

P. 32. For the summer climate in Macedonia and Epirus see, Leake,
Northern Greece^ i. pp. 115, 268, iv. p. 114; Hogarth, Nearer East, pp.
99 ff. ; Philippson, Mittelmeergebiet, pp. 123 ff. ; Tozer, Highlands of Turkey,
ii. p. 199.

CHAPTER III

P. 46. For the population of Samarina see, Weigand, Olympo-Walachen,
p. 6; Nicolaidy, Les Turcs, etc., ii. p. 228 ; Cordescu, Istoricul ^coalelor
Romdne din Tura'a^p^.I^Sff. ; 'Apa^avnvos, Xpovoypa(})ia, ii. p. 341 ; S^tfay,
'OdoiTTopiKov, i. pp. 5o> 57-

P. 48. Aigl'a is a corruption of the Greek "Ayios 'HXi'ar.

P. 56. For an account of Vlach boys' games see, Papahagi, Din
Literatura Poporana a Aromdnilor, pp. 71-186.

CHAPTER IV

A general account of Vlach dress is given by Weigand, Aromunen, i.
pp. 260 ff. ; cf. also his book Vlacho-AIegleft, p. xxix.

CHAPTER V

Pp. 87 ff. The original texts of the inscriptions in the churches are given
in Appendix I.

P. 87. The Church of St Elijah is mentioned in a klephtic song referring
to Totskas, Passow, Carmina Popularia, No. xxi. 1. 24 ; 'Apa^arrtj/dy, '%<TpaTa
'llTreipov, No. 7 1) !• 24 ; Xpr](TTo^a(T[\r]s, ''Edvina "J^a-para, No. 104, k 26.

P. 94. For Vlach houses in other villages see, Weigand, Aromunen, i.
p. 268 ; Papahagi, Basme Aromdne, p. viii.

CHAPTER VI

A description of the betrothal and wedding customs at Samarina has
been given by IlaTrayewpytou in Aaoypa(pla, ii. pp. 432 ff., and those at Blatsa

300 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

are recorded in the MaKeboviKov 'H/iepoXoytoi' for 1912, pp. 212 fF. The small
book by Cosmescu, Datini Credinfe §i Supersti(ii Aromdne^h', contains a
brief account of the customs at birth, marriage and death. Weigand in
D/e Aronmnen^ ii. pp. 32 ff., 200 ff., briefly describes the marriage and burial
customs. Some Vlach customs are mentioned by Marianu in his books on
Roumanian folklore, which may be compared for parallel Roumanian
observances. For Modern Greek customs the Volksleben der Neugriechen
of B. Schmidt can be referred to and also the works of Politis. A Greek
wedding in the Zaghori is described in 'EWtjvikos 4>iXoXoytK6y S/XXoyor,
vol. 19, pp. 223 fif. The best account of Albanian customs is von Hahn's
Albatiesische Sttidien.

P. 103. The text is in IlaxTLKos, 'EWj^viku "l^ajmra, p. 269, No. 173 with
four extra lines.

P. 107. The original text is given by IlaTrayeoapytou, Aaoypa(pla, ii. p. 434,
No. I.

P. 107. The text is given in Appendix II, No. i.

P. 107. A version of the text is given by Uanayfcopyiov, op. cit., p. 435,
cf. Passow, Cartnina Popiilar-ia, No. Dii.

P. 113. The text is given in Appendix II, No. 2.

P. 113. The texts of songs for the dressing of the bride and the combing
are given in Appendix II, Nos. 3, 4.

P. 115. IlaTrayfcopytou prints the text, Aaoypacfjia, ii. p. 440.

P. 115. The text is given by UaTrayfcopylov, op. cit.^ p. 439, No. i,

P. 116. The Vlach text is given in Appendix II, No. 5.

P. 116. IIuTrayecopyiou gives the text of this and the three following songs,
op. cif., p. 441.

P. 119. The texts are given by IlaTrayfcopy/ou, op. at., p. 444, No, i ; p. 443.

P. 120. The texts of this and the next two songs are in Appendix II,
Nos. 6-8,

P. 121. The text of this song to the mutii is in IlaTrayecopytov, op. cii.^
p. 445.

P, 123. The texts of these songs are in Appendix II, Nos, 9-1 1.

P. 125. The text is in HaTTayewpylov, Op. cit., p. 437,

P, 126. Vlach dirges are given by Weigand, Arojnunen, ii. pp. 202-210,
and Papahagi, Di?t Literatura Poporand, pp. 963 ff.; cf. Fauriel, Chants
populaires de la Grece moderne.

CHAPTER VII

For Vlach folklore the most comprehensive work is Papahagi, Din
Lite7'atura Poporatid a Aromdnilor ; much will be found in the works of
Cosmescu referred to for Chapter VI and in Weigand, Aro7nunen, ii. pp.
1 16 ff. Papahagi, Basjne Aromdne is a good collection of folk tales. Parallel
Roumanian, Albanian and Greek customs are treated by Marianu, von Hahn,
B. Schmidt and Politis whose books have already been quoted in Chapter

NOTES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY 301

VI. Other books on Greek folklore are Lawson, Modern Greek Folklore^
and Hamilton, Greek Saints and their Festivals.

P. 1 29. For the fair of Mavronoro see Pouqueville, Voyage de la Grece^
ii. p. 495 ; 'ETTeTT/pk ITapi/ao-trov, 1902, p. 142.

P. 130. The texts of the first two songs are in Appendix II, Nos. 12, 13.
A version of the third is given by Weigand, Aromimen, ii. p. 88, No. 59.

P. 132. For Pirpiruna songs see Weigand, Aro7imnen, ii. p. 136, No. 80,
and Papahagi, Literatura Poporatid^ pp. 723-729.

P. 137. These Christmas songs are in Appendix II, Nos. 14, 15.

P. 138. On Karkandzal'i see Lawson, op. cit., pp. 190 ff.

P. 138. For the mumming at Epiphany see Annual of the British School
at Athens, xvi. pp. 232-253. The Thracian festivals are described by
D 3.\vk'ms, /ournal of Hellenic Studies., 1906, pp. 191 ff., and Katsarow,
Archiv.f. Religionszuissenschaft, 1908, pp. 407 ; for its relation to the Greek
drama see Ridgeway, Origin of Tragedy., and Nilsson in Neiie fahrbilcher f. d.
klassische Altertum, xxvii. pp. 677 ff. For the Albanian custom see von
Hahn, Albanesische Studien, i. p. 156.

CHAPTER VIII

P. 114. Baldacci's journey is described in 'ETrerrjph Uapvaacrov, iii. pp.
152 ff.

P. 146. For the tshelnikU system see Weigand, Aromunen, i. p. 186.

P. 148. References to Yanni al Preftu will be found in 'Apa/3a^rtvoj,
XpOPoypa(f)La, AapTrpi8r]s and XpT]crTol3a(ri\r]S, 'EdviKci "A(Tp,aTa.

P. 149. The text is given in Appendix III, No. i.

P. 149. The text is in 'Apa^avnvos, "^apara 'Hneipov, No. 50 ; cf.
Papahagi, Literatura Poporand, p. 912, No. xxiv.

P. 150. The text is in 'ApajSavrivos, o/>. cit., No. 52, and XpTjo-To/Sao-iXT/y,
op. cit., No. 46.

P. 152. The tale of Demetrius is in Pouqueville, Hist, de la Regeniration
de la Grece, i. pp. 339 ff.

P. 154. The song is in 'Apa^avTiv6i,of>. cit., No. 92.

P. 155. For the rising of 1854 see Finlay, Hist, of Greece, vii. pp. 221 ff.
(ed. Tozer), Parliamentary Papers 1854, Correspondence respecting Relations
of Greece and TH7'key, 'Apaj3avTiv6s,''A(rpaTa 'Hireipov, Nos. 27, 32.

P. 157. The song is in Appendix TTI, No. 2.

P. 159. For the rising of 1878 see ^e'i^dvrjs, 'UnavdaTaa-is rov 18^8.

P. 161. The song is in Weigand, Olympo-Walachen, p. 131, No. xx.

P. r62. This song and the next are in Appendix III, Nos. 3, 4; cf.
Papahagi, Literatura Poporajid, p. 1014, Nos. xxi, xxii.

P. 163. For the tale of Karadzhas, see Zuca, Istorioare dift Epir, pp. 39 ff. ;
the song is in Appendix III, No. 5. A pamphlet describing Zhurkas as a
hero was published in Athens in 1880, 'AvBpayadrjpara rov BaaiXeiov ZovpKa,
by Koritsias, Papadhopulos and Bosos,

302 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

p. 165. This and the next two songs are in Appendix III, Nos. 6, 7, 8.
P. 166. For the exploits of Katarah'ia, see Chirol, '7\mxt Greek and
Turk^ pp. Baft". : he refers to Leonidha on p. 173 and Davelis on p. 170.
P. 168. This song and the next are in Appendix III, Nos. 9, 10.

CHAPTER IX

For other books on this district see Weigand, Aromunen, i., 'Apa^avrivos,
Xpovoypa<pia, Anfinpldrjs, 'HTTfipcoriKa MeXerij/iara, and ZayopiaKci, and Cordescu,
Istoricul ^coalelor Romdne din Turcia.

P. 183. Mr. Sokolis' paper is in the 'E-n-erTjpls Uapvaacrov, 1883, p. 298, and
is called Ilepi 'Hneipov Koi 'AXfiavlas.

P. 192. For the epic of Ali Pasha see 2d6as, 'laropiKai Aiarpijiai, pp. I23ff. ;
of. 'Apa^avTivos, 'IdTopia rov 'AXij Uaaui, pp. 523 fif. ; Leake, Northern Greece,
i. pp. 463 fif.

P. 193. For Ayios Kosmas see 'S.adas, NeofWrjviKrj ^tXoXo-yia, pp. 487 fif.

P. 197. The song is given by Papahagi, Literatiira Poporand, p. 1026,
No. xlii.

P. 203. For the tale of the mountain demons see Zuca, Istorioare din Epir,
pp. 46 ff. ; Papahagi, Basme Aromdne, No. 3 ; Uapvacraos, 1890, pp. 347 ff*

CHAPTER X

For this chapter apart from our own researches the principal authorities
are the works of Leake, Weigand and Diamandi mentioned in the biblio-
graphy to Chapter I. There is also some information to be found in the
periodical Lumina which used to be published at Monastir.

P. 215. For Muskopol'e see the songs in Weigand, Aromunen, ii. p. 150,
No. 91 ; Papahagi, Literatura Poporana, pp. 994, loio, Nos. i, xvi, xvii.

P. 220. For the Gramos Vlachs in the Meglen see Lilicea Pindului,
i. p. 65.

CHAPTER XI

For books on the Vlach language see the works of Weigand quoted in
the bibliography to Chapter I, the various articles in the Jahresberichte of
the Roumanian Seminar at Leipzig ; Densusianu's Histoire de la langue
roumaine and Miklosich's publication of the books of Kavalliotis and
Daniel in the Wiener Denkschri/ien for 1882. In Greek the best book is
the Ae^iKov Trjs K(>vT(Tof:i\axiK^s rXc^aa-Tjs of NtKoXatSi^s, to which Capidan has
published a Rdponse Critique. G. Meyer's Neugriechische Studien and
Murnu's Rutndnische Lchnworter in Neugriechischen illustrate its relations
with Greek. For neighbouring languages the Albanian, Bulgarian and
Roumanian grammars of Weigand, G. Meyer and Pu^cariu may be
consulted. The best works on modern Greek are Thumb's Handbuch
which has been translated into English and Hatzidakis' Einleitung. A

NOTES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY 303

good collection of Vlach texts is given by Papahagi in his Basme Aromdne.
The earliest students of Vlach were Lucius who collected a few words in his
De Regno Dalmatics et Croatia: and Thunmann in his Geschichte dcr
bstlichefi europaischen Volker. The oldest monuments of Vlach are the
lexicons of Kavalliotis and Daniel and the Codex Demonie published in the
Jahresberichte of the Roumanian Seminar at Leipzig. There is no Vlach-
English dictionary, but the works of Weigand and Papahagi contain useful
glossaries; Nikolaidhis' lexicon is also useful, but the employment of the
Greek alphabet is a very serious inconvenience. There are two Vlach-
Roumanian dictionaries by Dalametra and Mihaileanu. Modern Vlach
literature is represented by two or three local newspapers such as Dreptatea
published in Salonica and periodicals like Lumitta, Grain Bun, Lilicea
Pindului, all printed in Bucharest, and Flanibura printed in Salonica. The
four volumes of the Biblioteca Luinina of which Zuca's htorioare din Epir
is the second were issued from Bucharest, but Zicu Araia's version of " Enoch
Arden " was published at Monastir. Both Zuca and Araia write in the
Samarina dialect.

CHAPTER XII

The chief ancient authorities have been mentioned in the text and most
if not all of them are to be found in the Bonn Corpus of Byzantine Historians.
The later period of the Asan kingdom is dealt with by Georgius Acropolita ;
most of the Byzantine Histories and many of the Chronicles of the Crusaders
contain references to Vlachs. Besides the main modern authorities men-
tioned in the bibliography to Chapter I are the following :

Arginteanu, Istoria Romhiiilor Macedoneni,

Boga, Romdnii din Macedonia.

F inlay, History of Greece.

lorga, Geschichte des rumdftischen Vblkes.

Jirecek, Geschichte der Bulgaren.

Miller, History of the Ottotnan Empire.

Murnu, Vlahia Mare.

Pic, Ueber die Abstatnmiing der Rumdnen.

Roesler, Romdnische Studien.

Rubin, Les Rou mains de Mac^doine.

Thunmann, Geschichte der ostlichen europaischen Volker.

Xenopol, Les Roumains au Moyen Age ; Histoire des Roiimains ;

and Peisker's chapter on the " Asiatic Background" in the first volume of

the Cambridge Medieval History.

VOCABULARY

In this vocabulary will be found all the Vlach words in the text and
appendices. It is hoped that it will prove useful to any readers who
wish to translate for themselves the texts given with the aid of the
grammar in Chapter XI. The abbreviations used are those common
in dictionaries, v. for verb, n. for noun, and so on. As regards verbs
the form given is the first person singular of the present indicative, and
the infinitive and preterite, where known, are added. The numbers
I, II, III, IV indicate the conjugations of the verbs in question, which
are explained on pages 242-248. The letters g', h' , k' , I' , n' and h are
grouped under G, H, K, L and iV, and d and d under A.

a, prep.; with ace. at, to ; with gen. and dat. of nouns, pronouns
and adjectives as a sign of the case, see pp. 234, 235, 238.

adarii, v, I, make, do ; adrare, adrai.

adete, n. fem., custom.

adhimta, n. iem.,fine home-spun.

adukii, v. Ill, bring, fetch ; adutseare, adushu.

adunare, n. fem., meeting.

adzhungu, v. Ill, arrive, reach, be enough ; adzhundzeare, adz-
humshu.

aestu, pron., this.

afendi, n. masc, master.

afiu, V. I, find ; aflare, afiai ; reflexive, mi aflu, / am born.

afstriaku, n. masc, Austrian gold piece.

aghoyie, n. fem., hire 0/ mules and horses, jare, cost of journey.

aghrapnie, n. fem., vigil, watch-night service.

aghunesku, v. IV, drive away, expel ; aghunire, aghunii.

agudesku, v. IV, hit, strike, attack ; agudire, agudii.

ahantu, rel. pron., as many as.

aieri, adv., yesterday.

aistu, dialectic form for aestu.

akatsu, v. I, seize, start ; akatsare, akatsai.

ak'ikasesku, v. IV, understand ; ak'ikasire, ak'ikasiJ.

aklo, aklotse, adv., there.

akresku, v. II, grow, increase ; akrishtearc, akriskui.
20

3o6 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

akumbarii, v. I, buy ; akumbarare, akumbarai.

al', dialectic form for I'i.

al, abbreviation for alii.

alagii, V. I, wander ; alagare, alagai.

alak'esku, v. IV, stick ; alak'ire, alak'ii.

alaksesku, v. IV, change one's clothes, dress ; alaksire, alaksii.

alaksimindu, n. neut. ; change of clothing.

alantu, pron., the other.

alasii, v. I, leave, let alone, abandon ; alasare, alasai.

alavdu, v. I, praise ; alavdare, alavdai.

albiT, adj., white.

ale, the gen. and dat. sing, of the fern, article,

alegii, v. III^ choose, pick out ; aledzeare, alepshu.

a I'ei, pronom. adj. indecl., her ; see a lui ; also gen. and dat. fern.

sing, of elu.
alinii, v. I, climb, ascend ; alnare, alnai.
alithia, n. fern., truth.
aliura, adv., somewhere else.
alka, n. fern., crearn.

a lor, pronom. adj. indecl., their ; also gen. and dat. plur. of elu.
alotii, n. neut., yeast.
altu, indef. pronoun, other.
alu, gen. and dat. sing of the masc. article,
aluna, n. fern., nut.
alunii, n. masc, nut tree.
a lui, pronom. adj. indecl., his ; fern, a I'ei ; really gen. sing. masc.

and fern, of elu.
am, V. II, have ; aveare, avui.
amare, n. fern., sea.
ameru, see meru.
ameu, pronom. adj., my, mine.

amintu, v. I, obtain, acquire^ take ; amintare, amintai.
amo, adv., now.
analtu, adj., high, tall.
analtu, adv., up, upstairs, alojt.
anapudhu, adj., upside down, mixed, disturbed.
andihristu, n. masc. Antichrist ; fem. andihrista.
andreptu, adv., straight ahead.
andri, n. masc, robe ; see p. 64.
anemi, n. fem., skein-holder.
Anglic, n. fem., England.
anostru, pronom. adj., our.
anojde, n. fem., upper room.
anu, n. masc, year.
aoa, aoatse, adv., here.
aoaltari, adv., the day before yesterday.
aoatse, see aoa.

VOCABULARY 307

apa, n. fern., water.

apala, n. fem., loose lump of carded wool.

apleku, V. I, bend, stoop ; aplikare, aplikai.

aplikatoara, n. fem., milch-ewe.

apofasi, n. fem., determination, decision.

apoia, adv., afterwards.

apostusesku, v. IV, be tired ; apostusire, apostusii.

aproape, adv., near.

apufasesku, v. IV, decide, determine ; apufasire, apufasix.

aradu, v. Ill, laugh, deceive ; aradeare, arashu.

arapu, n. masc, Arab.

arapu, v. IV, seize, snatch ; arak'ire, arak'ii.

aratse, adj., cold.

arau, n. neut., river.

axau, adj., wrong, harmful.

ardu, V. Ill, burn ; ardeare, arshu.

arkoare, n. fem., cold, dialectic form of rakoare.

aroshu, adj., red.

arsaru, v. IV,jump, leap ; arsarire, arsarii.

aruga, n. fem., exit jrom sheep fold.

aruku, v. I, throw ; arkare, arkai.

arumanu, n. masc, Vlach ; fem. arumana.

arupu, V. Ill, tear, break ; arupeare, arupshu.

asans, adv., to-day.

ashteptu, v. I, wait, wait for, expect ; ashtiptare, ashtiptai.

asime, n. fem., silver.

ashi, ashitsi, adv., 50, yes.

askundu, \ . Ill, hide ; askundeare, askumshu.

aspargu, v. Ill, spoil, break, change a large coin for small change ;

aspardzeare, asparshu.
aspunu, see spunu.

astingu, v. Ill, quench, extinguish ; astindzeare, asteshu.
atau, pronoun, adj., thy, thine.
atsets, contracted form of adutsetsi from aduku.
atseu, pron., that.
atsia, adv., there, here.
atumtsea, adv., then.

aungu, V. Ill, anoint, smear ; aundzeare, aumshu.
aushu, n. masc, old man.
avdu, V. IV, hear, listen ; avdzare, avdzai.
Avgustu, n. masc, August.
avostru, pron. adj., your.
ayine,n, iem., vineyard.

azboru, only in phrase si dutseare azboru, see p. 52.
azhungu, dialectic form of adzhufigu.

3o8 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

bade, dialectic form of pade.

baghanika, n. fern., batter cake.

bagu, V. I, put, place ; bagare, bagai.

bairii, n. neut., necklace.

baktshe, n. masc, garden.

bana, n. fern., life.

banedzu, v. I, live \ banare, banai.

barbatii, n. masc, man, husband.

batal'e, n. fern., beetling mill.

batii, V. II, beat, hit ; bateare, batui.

beau, V. II, drink ; beare, biui.

birbeatse, dialectic form for birbeku.

birbeku, n. masc, ram.

bisearika, n. fern., church.

bitisesku, v. TV , finish ; bitisire, bitisii.

boti, n. masc, ox.

branii, n. neut., sash.

bre, exclam., ho ! hi !

bresku, dialectic form for mundresku, mutresku.

bufii, n. masc, owl.

bubghala, n. fem., a sweet; see p. 122.

buhare, n. masc, chimney.

bunu, adj., /D'ooat.

D

d, abbreviation of di.

da, affirm., yes.

dada, n. fem., mother.

dala, n. fem., buttermilk.

dapoia, adv., afterwards.

dau, V. irreg., give ; dare, dedui.

davani, n. fem., wooden ceiling.

depunu, v. Ill, descend, make to descend ; dipuneare, dipushu.

dhipla, adv., double, by side oj.

di, prep., 0/ ; di tu, /rom; di pri, oz^^ 0/.

di, conj., and.

dineavra, adv.,yz«s/ Moto. ;

dipartosii, adj., distant.

dipii, adv., altogether, completely.

dipunu, see depunii.

disfakii, v. Ill, unfasten, open ; disfatseare, disfetshu.

dislaksesku, v. IV, undress ; dislaksire, dislaksii.

dispostusesku, v. IV, stop from being tired, rest ; dispostusire,

dispostusii.
doamna, n. fem., mistress.

VOCABULARY 309

doi, num., two ; fern, doaua.

domnu, n. masc, master.

dormu, v. IV, sleep ; durn'ire, durn'ii.

dospradzatse, num., twelve.

drama, n. fem., switch.

drashteala, n. fem., washing and bleaching tub.

duk'esku, v. IV, understand ; duk'ire, duk'ii.

duku, V. Ill, lead ; dutseare, dushu : most common in reflexive

form mi duku, / go.
dulape, n. fem., cupboard.
dultse, adj., sweet.

duluma, n. masc, woman's long coat.
Dumnidzeu, n. masc., God.
dupa, prep., after.

dzaku, V. Ill, tell, say ; dzatseare, dzashu.
dzatse, num., ten.

dzeana, n. fem., cheek, mountain ridge.
dzhibadane, n. fem., waistcoat.
dzhoku, V. I, dance ; dzhukare, dzhukai.
dzhone, n. masc, young man, youth, gallant.
dzhumitate, v. fem., halj.
dzhuneale, n. masc, young man, youth.
dzua, n. fem., day.

E

ea, exclam., see !

eapa, n. fem., tnare.

efthinitate, n. fem., cheapness.

elu, pron., he ; fem. ea, she ; see p. 238.

epidhis, conj,, since.

esku, V. aux., be ; h'ire, earam, fui ; see h'iu.

estan, adv., this year.

esu, V. IV, go out ; ishire, ishii.

etiu, n, masc, cause of, reason for , always personal.

eu, pron., /.

fagii, n. masc, beech tree.

fakii, V. Ill, make ; fatseare, fetshu.

fandana, n. fem., spring, source ; dialectic form of fantatia.

fantana, n. fem., spring, source.

fara, prep., without.

fatsa, n. fem., face.

feata, n. fem., girl, daughter,

fitika, dim. of feata.

310 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

fitshorii, n. masc, boy, son.

floku, n. neut., flock of wool.

flurie, n. fern., gold florin.

foale, n. fem., skin bag (for carrying cheese, wine, water, or the

like),
foame, n. fem., hunger.
foku, n. neut., fire.
frandza, n. fem., leaf.

frangu, v. Ill, break ; frandzearc, fredzhu.
frapsinu, n. masc, ash tree.
frate, n. masc, brother.
frika, n. fem., fear, fright.
frundidha, n. fem., thought, care.
fugu, V. IV, flee, go away ; fudzirc, fudzai.
fukara, adj., poor.
fumeal'e, n. fem., family.
fumu, n. masc, smoke.
fun da, n. fem., tassel.
furka, n. fem., distaff.
furishaoa, n, fem., costtime, dress.
furtatii, n. masc, groomsman.
furtutira, n. fem., loading pole.
furii, n. masc, thief, robber, brigand.

G, G'

galeata, n. fem., milk pail.

galina, n. fem., hen.

gambro, n. masc, bridegroom ; dialectic form of ghambro.

gamila, n. fem., camel.

gapii, dialectic form of kapu.

garambo, dialectic form of gambro.

garvanitshu, n. masc, homespun (medium).

garvano, n. masc, homespun (coarse).

gasa, dialectic form of kasa, but only in phrase in gasa.

g'atru, dialectic form of yatru.

gavu, adj., blind.

ghalika, n. fem., basket.

ghambro, n. masc, bridegroom.

ghrapsesku, v. IV, ivrite ; ghrapsire, ghrapsii.

ghrapto, adj., written.

g'ilie, dialectic form of yilie.

g'ine, adv.. well ; adverb of bunii.

g'inu, dialectic form of yinu.

g'iptu, dialectic form of yiptu.

g'iro, n. masc, time, season ; dialectic form of k'iro.

g'iza, n. fem., boiled butter milk.

VOCABULARY 311

g'izirsesku, v. IV, wander ; g'izirsire, g'izirsii.

glaru, adj., mad.

gor, only in adv. phrase pi gor, downhill.

gradina, n. fern., garden.

greku, n. masc, Greek.

grenda, n. fern., tree-trunk, log.

gresku, v. IV, call, shout ; grire, grii.

gxeu, adj., heavy, serious.

groapa, n. fern., hollow, grave, pit.

grossu, adj., thick.

gugutsha, n. fern., darling.

gura, n. fem., mouth.

gustu, n. neixt., taste, pleasure.

H, H'

haiate, n, fem., cloister.

hairlitka, exclam.. Here's to the wedding !

hambla, adv., doivnstairs ; sometimes almost as a noun, ground

floor.
hani, n. fem., inn, resting-place.
haraua, n. fem., yoy, pleasure, wedding.
hare, n. fem., talent, inclination, disposition.
hasku, V. I, gape, yawn ; haskare, haskai.
hazo, adj., mad, silly.

h'erbu, v. Ill, boil, cook ; h'irbeare, h'ershu.
h'igu, V. Ill, fix, insert ; h'idzeare, hipshu.
h'il'e, n. fem., daughter.
h'il'u, n. masc, son.

h'ima, adv., below ; used mainly of the lower coimtry, the plains.
h'iu, V. aux., be ; h'ire, earam, fui ; see esku.
h'ivresku, v. IV, have fever ; h'ivrire, h'ivrii.
hoara, n. fem., village.

hranesku, v. IV, feed, cherish ; hranire, hranii. -:

Hristo, n. masc, Christ.
hrisusesku, v. IV, gild, make of gold ; hrisusire, hrisusii.

i, dialectic form for eastc, 3rd pers. present indie, of esku and h'iu.

i . . . i, conj., either . . . or.

iara, n. fem., winter ; dialectic form of iarna.

iara, adv., again.

iara, dialectic form of eara.

iarba, n. fem., grass.

iarna, n. fem., winter.

ilik'ie, n. fem., full age, right age, age.

312 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

imblinu, adj., /«// ; dialectic form of implinu. '

imnu, V. I, walk ; imnare, imnai.

impartu, v. IV, divide, separate , impartsire, impartsii.

implinu, adj., full.

in, prep., in.

inate, n. fem., anger.

indregu, adj., whole, complete.

ing'os, adv., below.

ingrunare, n. fem., crowning, marriage.

iflgrunu, v. I, crown, marry ; iiigrunare, iiigrunai.

inkalliku, v. I, mount a horse, ride ; inkallikare, inkallikai.

insorii, v. I, marry (of a man) ; insurare, insurai.

intselegu, v. Ill, understand ; intseledzeare.

invesku, v. II, clothe, dress ; invishteare, inviskui.

io, dialectic form of eu.

ishire, see esu.

isusesku, v. IV, betroth ; isusire, isnsii.

itie, n. fem., cause, reason.

iu, adv. rel. and interrog., where.

iuva, adv., nowhere.

K, K'
ka, conj., like, as.
ka, intensive part., move.
ka, conj., that, because, since.
ka si, conj., if.

kadii, V. II, fall ; kadeare, kadzui.
kaftu, V. I, ask for, look for ; kaftare, kaftai.
kairu, n, neut., handful of carded wool.
kaldu, adj., warm, hoi.
kale, n. fem., road.
k'ale, n. fem., skin, hide.

kali mera afendiko, good day, master ; a Greek phrase,
kalo s ton bistiko, welcome to the trusty shepherd boy ; a Greek

phrase,
kaltsuveta, n. fem., garter.
kalu, n, masc, horse.
kalugru, n. masc, monk.
kameasha, n. fem., shirt.
kanale, n. fem., mill-stream.
kanda, conj., like, as if.

kandu, v. I, sing ; kandare, kandai ; dialectic form of kantu.
kandu, conj., when ; also interrogative,
kanc, n. masc, dog.
kanii, indef. pron., one, some.
kapitin'u, n. masc, pillar, cushion.
kapra, n. fem., goat.

VOCABULARY 313

k'aptine, n. masc, comb.

kapu, n. neut., head.

kar sij dialectic form of ka si.

kara, conj., when.

karavi, n. fem., boat, Jerry boat.

kare, rel. and interrog. pron., who ?

karlibana, n. fem., shepherd's crook.

karkalanza, n. masc, a demon.

karkandza, n. masc, a demon.

karkliku, n. masc, forty para piece.

kamu, adj., snubnose, a person with a bridgeless nose.

karte, n. fem., letter, book.

karuta, n. fem., water shoot for mill.

kasa, n. fem., house, hut.

kashari, n. fem., shepherd's camp and cheese factory.

kashii, n. masc, cheese; kash kaval, special kind of cheese; in

Italian, caccia cavallo.
katasarku, n. vhslSC, flannel.
kate, distrib., apiece, each.
katfe, n. masc, a kind of stuff.
kathe, adj. indecl., each, every.
kati, n. masc, judge.

katoyie, n. fem., storeroom on ground floor.
katra, prep., towards, about.
k'atra, n. fem., rock, stone.
katrani, n. fem., pitch.
katse, interrog. adv., why ?
katshua, dialectic form of katshula.
katshula, n. fem., fez.

katu, rel. and interrog., hozv much ? or, as much as.
kazane, n. fem., cauldron.
k'eliposhe, n. fem., embroidered fez ; see p. 65.
k'eptu, n. neut., breast, chest.
k'ibape, n. fern., roast meat ; see p. 42.
k'in'isesku, v. IV, start, move ; k'in'isire, k'in'isii.
k'inu, n. masc, pine tree.
k'ipeng'i, n. fem., wooden balcony ; see p. 98.
k'ipitoru, adj., peaked, sharp, pointed.
k'iradzhi, n. masc, muleteer.
k'iraua, n. fem., Turkish woman.
k'isavro, n. masc, treasure.
kleaie, n. fem. , key.
kl'emu, V. I, call ; kl'imare, kl'imai.
klidhona, n. fem., trinket for fortune telling.
klinu, n. neut., pleat, fold.
koada, n. fem., tail.
koasta, n. fem., rib, side.

314 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

kofa, n. fern., wooden flask.

korbuj n. masc, crow ; or metaphorical, poor wretch.

komu, n. neut., cornel, cornel tree.

kornu, n. neut., horn.

krepu, V. I, crack, worry ; kripare, kripai.

krishtinu, n. masc. Christian, fern, krishtina.

ksenu, adj., strange, foreign ; also used as a noun, fern, kseana.

ku, prep., with.

kukotu, n. masc, cock.

kukuveaua, n. fem., owl.

kulaku, n. masc, cake, bun, loaf of bread [pi a special kind, see

p. lOl).
kulauz, n. masc, guide, informer.
kumu, rel. adv., how ?
kunak'e, n. fem., camp, governor's office.
kundushu, n. mzisc., jacket for a man.
kunosku, v. II, know ; kunushteare, kunuskui.
kupalsharu, n. masc, i^i</?a/s/ja>' (see p. 30); fem. kupatshara.
kupatshu, n. masc, oak tree.
kurkubeta, n. fem., vegetable marrow.
kuskru, n. masc, relation by marriage, wedding guest.
kusurinii, n. masc, cousin ; fem. kusurina.
kutaru, n. neut., sheep fold.

kutsutu, n. neut., knife.

L. L'

1, abbreviation for la, la, or la.

r, abbreviation for I'i.

la, prep., to ; pri la, on to.

la, la, pronom. adj. enclitic, their.

lai, a polite form for addressing men to call their attention when

one does not know or does not wish to use the personal name,
laiii, adj., black.
laku, n. neut., lake, pool.
lakrima, n. fem., tear.
lala, n. masc, uncle.
lana, n. fem., wool.
lapuda, n. fem., sock.
lapte, n. masc, milk.
largu, adj., wide.
I'aru, adj., piebald.
I'au, v. I, take ; Tare, loai.
lea, fem. of lai.
lemnu, n. neut., wood, timber.
I'epure, n. masc, hare.
letu, V. IV, go out ; litire (liteare). litii.

VOCABULARY 315

I'i, pron., gen. and dat. fern, and masc. of elu.

I'i, pronom. adj. enclitic ; his, her, its.

ligutsharu, n. masc, mummer.

Witshe, n. iem. , fiower.

limba, n. fem., tongue, language.

lipon, interj., well.

lipsesku, V. IV, be wanting ; lipsire, lipsii ; impersonal use, lip-

seashte, it must, it is necessary.
lira, n. fem., pound.
lishk'itoria, n. neut., skein-winder.
litesku, see letu.
livadhe, n. fem., meadow.
lokii, n. neut., place.
lukredzu, v. I, work ; lukrare, lukrai.
lukru, n. neut., work, business.
lukume, n. fem., Turkish delight.
lume, n. fem., world, people.
luiigu, adj., /oMg'.
lun'ina, n. fem., light.
lupu, n. masc, wolf.

M

m, abbreviation for mi or mu.

m, before b, abbreviation for in.

ma, conj., but.

ma, adv., more,

maie, n. fem., mother, old woman, grandmother.

maika, n. fem., mother.

Maiu, n. masc. May.

maka, conj., if.

makare, n. iem., food ; see maku.

maku, V. I, eat ; mkare, mkai ; cf . maiigu.

malliotu, n. masc, woollen overcoat.

mana, n. fem., hand.

mane, adv., to-morrow.

mangu, v. I, eat ; mangare, mafigai ; see maku.

maramnatu, adj., melancholy, unhappy.

marango, n. masc, carpenter.

maratu, adj., unhappy.

mardzine, n. masc, edge.

mare, adj., big, great.

maritu, v. I, marry (of a woman") ; maritare, marital.

markatu, n. masc, yiaurti, a kind of junket.

marmaru, n. neut., marble, marble block.

martare, n. fem., marriage, see maritii.

Martsu, n. masc, March.

masa, contraction for muma sa.

3i6 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

maseaua, n. iem.,jaw.

masturu, n. masc, mason, skilled crajtsman.

mata, condensed form of muma ta.

mathima, n. fern., lesson.

matritsa, n. fern., milch-ewe.

matsu, n. neut., entrails, usually in plural only.

mbartu, dialectic form for impartu.

mbl'eare, dialectic form of ml'eare.

mbrostu, adj.^ upright, dialectic form of improstu.

measa, n. fem., table.

meru, n, neut., apple, apple tree.

mesku, v. II, treat ; mishteare, miskui

metagresku, v. IV, call again ; metagrire, metagrii.

mg'are, dialectic form of ml'eare.

mi, ace. of eu.

mihrisesku, v. IV, bend, make smaller ; mihriseir, mihrisii.

mindarlik'i, n. fem., dais, platform ; see p. 96.

mindu, dialectic form of amintu.

mindzhune, n. fem., lie, untruth.

mine, ace. of eu ; sometimes used as a nom., /.

minte, n. fem., mind, sense.

misandra, n. fem., cupboard, sideboard ; see p. 96.

mishkatura, n. fem., scrap, fragment.

misohori, n. fem., central square or market-place of a village.

ml'eare, n. fem., woman, wife.

moarte, n. fem., death.

moasha, n. fem., old woman.

molonoti, con]., for all that.

mor, exclam. ; addressed to woman only, generally used with

terms of endearment,
morminde, n. masc, grave, monument.
moru, V. IV, die ; murire, murii.
mshatu, see mushatii.
mu, pronom. adj. enclitic, my.
multu, adj., m^ich, many.
muma, n. fem., mother.
munde, dialectic form of munte.

mundresku, v. IV, look at ; mundrire, mundrii ; cf. mutresku.
munte, n. masc, mountain, hill.
mushatu, adj., beautiful.

mutresku, v. IV, look at ; mutrire, mutrii ; cf. mundresku.
mutii, V. I, move, disturb, bestir ; mtare, mtai.

N, N', N

n', abbreviation for n'i ; also reflexive pronoun for first pers. sing.
n, before g, abbreviation for in.

VOCABULARY 317

n, abbreviation for na, na or nu.

na, na, abbreviation for una.

na, na, pronom. adj., enclitic, our.

na, na, gen. and dat. of noi ; also reflexive pronoun with verbs

for first pers. plur.
nafoara, adv., outside.
n'agra, adj., obs., fern, of negru.
naka, adv., perhaps.

namaru, n. neut., animal, a head oj sheep or cattle,
naparte, adv. , on the other side.
napoi, adv., after, yiext, then.
naskantsi, indef . pron. , some.
nasu, pron., he ; fern. nasa.
natheama, adv., a little.
naundru, adv., within.
ndoi, see doi,

ndrebii, v. I, ask, question ; ndribare, ndribai.
ne, affirm., yes.

negru, adj. obs., black ; fern, n'agra.
neka . . . neka, conj., neither . . . nor.
ligatshu, V. I, he angry, quarrel ; Agatshare, figatshai.
figalliku, dialectic form of inkalliku.
iigoa, adv., on this side, near.
iigrunare, see iiigrunu, iiigrunare.
n'i, gen. and dat. of eu.
n'i, pronom. adj. enclitic, my.
ni . . . ni, con]., neither . . . nor.
n'iku, adj., small.

nikuk'irata, n. fern., household, household property.
nikuk'iru, adj., rich.
n'ile, num., a thousand.
ninga, prep., near.
ninka, adv., still, again.
nipotu, n. masc, nephew, grandson.
niruh'ite, n. fem., sink.
niveasta, n. fem., bride.

nkredu, v, IT, trust, believe ; nkredere, nkridzui.
noara, n. fem., daughter-in-law.
noaua, num., nine.
noi, pron., we, plur. of eu.
nomu, n. neut., law.
nou, adj., new.
nu, neg., not, no.
n'u, pronom. adj. enclitic, my.
nuda, n. masc, room, sitting-room ; cf. uda.
numirii, v. I, count, number ; numirare, numirai.
numta, n. fem., wedding.

3i8 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

nuna. n. fem., godmother.
nunii, n. masc, godjather.
nverinu, v. I, be melancholy ; nverinare, nverinai.

O

o, pron., ace. fem. of elu.
oaie, n. fem., sheep.
oara, n. fem., hour, time.
oaspe, n. masc., guest, Jriend.
obdzatse, num., eighty.
oh'i, neg., no.
oi, plur. of oaie.
old'u, n. masc, eye.
omos, conj., however.
omu, n. masc, man.
optu, num., eight.
ou, n. neut., egg.

pade, n. fem., meadow, green, level space.

pahnie, n. fem., stable.

paimane, adv., the day after to-morrow.

palate, n. fem., palace.

palathiri, n. fem., zvindow.

pali, adv., again.

palto, n. neut., greatcoat.

pampordzhi, n. masc, captain oj a steamer.

pana, prep., as far as.

panathima, exclam., curse upon.

panayiru, n. neni. , feast , festival.

pane, n. fem., bread.

papu, n. masc, grandfather.

para, n. masc, money ; a para.

parakalie, n. fem., entreaty, prayer.

parakalsesku, v. IV, request, entreat ; parakalsire, parakalsii.

paramithu, n. neut., tale, story.

parinte, n. masc, parent, priest.

parte, n. fem., part.

parii, v. II, appear, seem ; pareare, parui ; usually impersonal, pare,

it seems, etc.
paru, n. masc, post.

pasku, V. II, pasture, feed ; pashteare, paskui,
patridha, n. iem., fatherland.
patru, num., four.
patrudzatse, num.,_/o>'^>'.

VOCABULARY 319

patu, n. neut., bottom, base.

pazare, n. fern., market, market-place, market-day.

peashte, n. vsi^sc.,fish ; dialectic form of pesku.

penitadha, n. iem.,Jarewell gijt ; see p. 42.

periusie, n. fem., property.

pi, dialectic form of pri.

pikuraru, n. masc, shepherd.

pileksesku, v. IV, cut, hew, carve ; pileksire, pileksii.

pionellu, n. masc, peacock.

pishli, n. ma.sc., jacket Jor a man.

pistipsesku, v. IV, believe, think ; pistipsire, pistipsii.

pisto, adj., trusty, J aith Jul.

pita, n. fem., pasty.

pitreku, v. II, send ; pitritseare, pitrikui.

pitrika, n. fem., lump 0) loose wool.

pitrunikl'e, n. fem., partridge.

pitrupu, n. masc, warden, overseer, church warden.

plaiagu, V. Ill, cry, weep ; plandzeare, plimshu.

platesku, v. IV, pay ; platire, platii.

plimshu, preterite of plaftgu.

plitsa, n. fem., hen.

ploaie, n. fem., rain.

ploatsha, n. fem., plate, slab.

poala, n. fem., apron.

poarka, n. fem., sow.

poarta, n. fem., door.

podhima, n. fem., boot.

politic, n. fem., city, large town.

pomu, n. neut. , Jruit, Jruit tree.

potu, V. II, be able ; p(u)teare, ptui.

pramateftu, n. masc, merchant.

pramatikos, adv., practically.

pravda, n. fem., beast of burden.

preftu, n. masc, priest.

pri, prep., upon, on ; di pri, out of ; pri la, on to.

primaveara, n. fem., spring.

primnu, v. I, walk, wander ; primnare, primnai.

prinde, v. impers., it must, it is fitting ; the only other tense in use

is the imperfect prindea.
protii, num. ad]., first.
pruksinitii, n. masc, envoy.
prukuk'ie, n. fem., progress, advance.

prumuveara, n. fem., spring ; dialectic form for primaveara.
psofii, adj., dead (of animals),
pudhimate, plur. of podhima.
puiUu, see pul'u.
pulimsesku, v. IV, fight ; pulimsire, pulimsii.

320 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

pulishoru, dim. of pul'u.
pul'u, n, masc, bird ; articulated puillu.
punte, n. fern., bridge, see pufiye.
punye, n, fem., bridge, see punte.
putc, adv., never.

R

roaoa, n. fem., dew.
rugatshune, n. fem., prayer.

s, abbreviated form for si or sa.

sa, dialectic form for si.

sakurafa, n. fem., pack needle.

samarvi. n. masc, pack saddle.

sanu, adj., well, healthy.

sarbatoare, n. fem., holiday , festival.

sare, n. fem., salt.

sarka, n. fem., long coat with loose sleeves.

saturu, V. I, satisfy ; saturare, saturai.

seara, n. fem., evening.

sh, abbreviated form for shi or sha.

sh, third personal reflexive pronoun, singular and plural, and all

genders,
sha, dialectic form for shi.
shapte, num., seven.
shasse, num., six.

shedii, v. II, sit ; shideare, shidzui.
sheidzatse, num., sixty,
shi, con]., and, also, eveyi.
shilivari, n. masc, breeches.
shoariku, n. masc, mouse.
shoputii, n. neut., conduit head.
shtiu, V. IV, know ; shtire, shtii, or shtiui.
si, conj., that, to ; cf, tra si, ka si.
si, pron. i-efiexive, third person, sing, and plur.
siharik'e, n. fem., gift given in return for congratulations.
sintu, V. lY ,feel ; sintsire, sintsii.
simvoli, n. fem., agreement, contract.
singuru, adj., alone.

skalsesku, v. IV, scratch ; skalsire, skalsii.
skandura, n. fem., plank, hoard.
skapii, V. I, escape, get rid of ; skapare, skapai ; also impers. skapa,

it is done.
sklavu, adj., slave, prisoner.

VOCABULARY 321

skolii, V. I, get up, raise ; skulare, skulai.

skotu, V. Ill, take out ; skuteare, skoashu.

skumbu, adj., dear ; dialectic form for skumpu.

skumpu, adj., dear.

slabu, adj., bad.

smeana, n. fern., drawers.

soakra, n. fern., mother-in-law.

sora, n. fern., sister.

sotsu, n. masc, friend, companion.

spelii, V. I, wash ; spilare, spilai.

spindzuru, v. I, hang ; spindzurare, spindzurai.

spunu, V. Ill, tell, explain ; spnneare, spushu.

stau, V. irreg., stand ; stare, stetui.

steaua, n. fem., star.

stefanii, n. neut., bridal crown.

sterpu, adj., barren, sterile.

sti, prep., on, upon.

stih'ima, n. fem., bet, ivager.

stran'n, n. neut., garment.

strunga, n. fem., sheep fold.

su, pronom. adj. enclitic, his ; fem. sa, her.

sum, prep., under.

suma, n. fem., lump of carded wool.

supra, adv., above.

surata, n. fem., bridesmaid.

suratia, for insuratu past part, of insoru.

susu, adv., above.

suta, num., a hundred.

t, abbreviated form for ta, ti, or tu.
ta, dialectic form for tra.
taghari, n. fem., bag, small sack.
ta.h.a,con]., as if.
talaganii, n. masc, overcoat.
tal'u, V. I, cut, kill ; tal'are, tal'ai.
tambare, n. fem., cape of goats' hair.
tata, n. masc, father.

teliusesku, v. TV, finish, settle ; teliusire, teliusii.
tenda, n. fem., rug, blanket.
teta, n. fem., aunt.
theam, abbreviation for natheama.
ti, dialectic form for tra.

tindu, V. Ill, spread, stretch ; tindeare, teshu or timshu.
tine, pron., thou.
tin'ie, n. fem., price, honour.
21

322 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

tin'isesku, v. IV, honour ; tin'isire, tin'isii.

toamna, n. fern., autumn.

tora, adv. , now.

tra, prep., for.

tra, si, conj., in order that.

tragu, V. Ill, draw, drag ; tradzeare, trapshu.

trama, n. fem., yarn, thread.

tramvaidzhi, n. masc, tram conductor or driver.

trana, n. fem., skein.

trandafiru, n. neut., rose, rose tree.

iredzSiisQ, num.., thirty.

trei, num., three ; treil'a, third, the third time.

treku, V. II, pass by, run, get on ; tritseare, trikui.

tri, dialectic form of tra.

tropu, n. neut., custom, manner.

tru, dialectic form of tu.

ts, pronom. adj. enclitic, thy.

ts, abbreviation for tsi, tsa, tsa, gen. and dat, sing, of tine.

ts, reflexive pronoun, second pers. singular.

tsanu, V. II, hold, keep ; tsaneare, tsanui.

tsara, n. fem., earth, soil.

tsaruha, n. masc, cobbler.

tsaruh'e, n. fem., out-door shoe.

tsaya, n, fem. spool.

tse, see tsi.

tsea, see atseu.

tseapa, n. fem., onion.

tseara, n. fem., candle, taper.

tsets, for dzatetsi from dzakii, but va tsetsi is for va dutsetsi from

mi duku.
tshelniku, n. masc, shepherd, head shepherd.
tshikrik'e, n. fem., spinning-wheel.
tshinuse, n. fem., ash.
tshoariku, n. masc, legging, gaiter.
tshokotu, n. neut., hammer.
tshorga, n. fem., rug, mat.
tshorii, n. neut., /oo^, leg.
tsi, rel. indecl., ivho, which, what.
tsi, interrog., who ? which ? what ?
tsi, pron. gen. and dat. fem. and masc. of tine,
tsia, contracted form of dzatsia from dzaku, but si tsia is for si

dutsia from mi dukii.
tsiketta, n. iem., jacket Jor a girl, t
tsini, for tsi.
tsintsi, num., five.
tsipune, n. fem., coat (for a man),
tsispradzatse, num., fijteen.

VOCABULARY 323

tsiva, adv. , Clothing, something.

tu, prep., in, at ; di in, from.

tu, pronom. adj. enclitic, thy.

turka, only in phrase a la turka, according to Turkish reckoning or

custom.
tutu, adj, all.

U

xi, dialectic form of i (for easte) in certain phrases, usually after ts.

u, ace. sing. fern, of elii.

uda, see nuaa.

umblu, dialectic form of umplu.

umplu, V. 11,^// ; umpleare, umplui.

umtii, n. neut., butter.

unvL, num., one.

urdu, n. neut., a kind oj cheese.

ureald'a, n. fem., ear.

ushe, n. fem., door.

uspitlik'e, n. iem.,Jriendship.

uspradzatse, num., eleven.

uspraying'itsi, num., twenty-one.

ustura, n. fem., yarn for weaving.

uvreu, n. masc, Jew.

V

va, abbreviated form of va, va or va.

va, pron. reflexive, second pers. plur.

va, gen. and dat. plur. of voi.

va, va, pronom. adj. enclitic, your.

va, vai, particles by which the future of a verb is found.

vaka, n. fem., cow.

vale, n. fem., stream, valley.

valitshe, n. fem., small stream, small valley, dim. of vale.

varu, indef. pron., one, some.

vasil'e, n. masc, king.

vasilik'esku, adj., royal.

vasiloan'e, n. fem., queen.

vatamu, v. I, kill, murder ; vatamare, vatamai.

vatra, n. fem., hearth.

vdzira, dialectic form for fudzira from fugu.

vearde, adj., green.

vedu, V. II, see ; videare, vidzui.

versu, V. I, pour, pour out ; versare, versai.

vilendza, n. fem., rug, blanket.

vindu, V. II, sell ; vindeare, vindui.

;24 THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

vinitfi, adj., blue.

vitsinii, n. masc, neighbour ; fem. vitsina.

voi, pron., you, plur. of tine.

voiu, V. II, wish, want, love ; vreare, vrui.

vreare, n. fem., good-will ; see voiu,

vrutu, past part, of voiu.

yatru, n. masc, doctor.

yermu, n. masc, worm.

yiftesku, adj., gipsy.

yig'indz, dialectic form of yifig'itsi.

yilie, n. fem., glass, tumbler.

ying'itsi, num., twenty.

yinu, V. Ill, come ; yineare, vin'u.

yinu, n. neut., wine.

yiptu, n. neut., corn, wheat.

z, dialectic form of s for si or sa.

z, dialectic form of ts for tsi, tsa or tsa.

zanate, n. fem., trade.

zboru, n. neut., word.

zburasku, v. I, speak, talk ; zburare, zburai.

zh, dialectic form of sh for shi or sha.

zhoku, dialectic form dzhoku.

zhone, dialectic form of dzhone,

zua, dialectic form of dzua.

zvaltsa, n. fem., shuttle.

INDEX

Abdi Pasha, 24, 25, 188

Acarnania, i, 5, 206

Achrida. See Okhridha

Adrianople, 140, 260, 263

Aemilius Paulus, 268, 269

Aeneas Sylvius (Pius II), cited, 265

Aenos, 259

Aetolia, 257, 264 ; climate in, 33

Aghrapha, 103, 163, 168

Ahuri, the spring and story of,

145
Akhillios, St.. fair of, 11, 21, 29 &., 48,

83, 129, 130 ; church of, Ghrev-

ena, 28
Akhladhi, 25
Akomu, 180
Albania, Albanians, 9, 10, 147, 213,

214, 216
Albanian Vlachs. See Farsherots
Alexandria, 186
Alexius, Byzantine emperor, policy

of, towards Vlachs, 260, 261
Alexius Comnenus, 259
Ali Pasha, 24, 150-154, 174, 176,

181, 185, 187, 192, 205, 209,

215
Aliphaklar, 214
AUi Meria, 176
Almiros, 3, 46, 209
Alpokhori, 24
America, emigration to, 33, 92, 171,

175. 177. 182, 198, 200, 203,

219
Ameru, 185 ; description of, 182
Amintshu. See Metsovo
Anaryiri, Ayii, chapels of, Samarina,

87, 88, 89 ; festival of, 133
Anchialos, 260
Andronia, 259
Andronicus III, Byzantine emperor,

265
Angelus. See Isaac and Michael
Anilion, 183
Ano-Volos, 176

Anthimos, bishop of Ghrevena, 87
Antony, St., day of, 141
Aous, river, 37, 189, 201, 202, 203
Apa Spindzurata, waterfall, 45

32s

Aravandinos, cited, 23, 2,6, 47, 185,
196

Armata, 45, 92, 252 ; description of,
202, 203

Arslan Bey, defeat of, 148

Arvanitovlakhi. See Farsherots

Asan, the revolt and history of, 259-
261.

Asan, John. See Johannitius II

Aspropotamos, river, and Vlach dis-
trict, 189, 207 &., 254

Athanasius, St., churches of, Baieasa,
198 ; Muskopol'e, 72 ; Sam-
arina, 40, 43, 70, 89, 109, 136 ;
festival of, 134, 141, 189

Athens, 46, 252

Australia, 182

Avdhela, 15, 21, 29, 252, 253 ; de-
scription, history and trade of,

173-175
Averoff, George, 183
Avles, former name of Ghrevena, 28
Avliotis, river, 28
Avlona, 41, 223
Aj'ia, 214

Badraleksi, migration of, 174, 210

Badzhu, capitan of the Zaghori, 195,
196

Baieasa, 189, 191, 201, 252 ; de-
scription and history of, 195-
199

Baietan, 175, 195

Baldwin, his wars against Johanni-
tius I, 262, 263

Bana Luka, 25

Barbaramu, 146

Barbarossa, Frederick, refuses Vlach
aid, 260

Barovitsa, 220

Basil, St., festival of, 137 ff. See
also Year, New

Basil II, golden bull of, cited, 22

Beala, 217

Belgrade, 222

Belkamen, 210, 213

Belos, capitan of Metsovo, 24

Beltsopulos, Suleyman, 26

326

THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

Benjamin of Tudela, cited, 258

Berat, 46, 193, 223

Beratori. See Peritore

Bessi, 267

Biga, 172

Biklishta, 214

Biskuki, 218

Bistritsi, 195

Bithultsi, 175

Bitsikopulo, 207

Bitsovitis, Yeorghakis, 26

Bitule. See Monastir

Blatsa, 212

Blatshola, Yoti, capitan of Zaghori,
his exploits, 195, ig6

Boboania, 174

Boghatsko, 140

Borilas, king of Vlachs and Bul-
garians, 263

Bowen, cited, 186

Boyadzhi, 216

Briaza, 165, 198, 252 ; description
of, 202, 203

Broti, 174

Buda-Pest, 214

Bulgaria, emigration to, 219, 222 ;
Vlachs in, 5, 221 fi.

Bulgarian empires, 257 ff.

influence, 2, 133, 219, 220 ff.,

249
insurrections, 8, 218

Bulgarians, 72, 151, 212, 213, 217 ff.,
273 ff.

Burbusko, Greek masons from, 72

Burgualtu, 256

Butkovo, Lake, 221

Buzhdova, 221

Cantacuzenus, John, the historian,

cited, 264
Cantacuzenus, John, the defeat of,

259, 260
Castron-Bouchalistas, 27
Catalans, in Great Vlachia, 264
Cedrenus, cited, 257
Chirol, Sir Valentine, cited, 162, 167
Chomatianos, Demetrios, archbishop

of Achrida, 22
Christmas, 136 ff.
Chronicle of Epirus. See under

Epirus
Chryses, the revolt and fortunes of,

261, 262
Cinnamus, cited, 265
Cipriani, leader of Garibaldians, 22
Comans, allied with Bulgarians and

Vlachs, 263
Commentiolus, the campaign of, 256,

257
Comnena, Anna, cited, 259

Comnenus, Alexius. See Alexius
Constantine Porphyrogenitus, cited,

22
Constantinople, 182, 186, 200

Dadal'ari, 146, 148

Dalmatia, 223, 257, 273

Dances, Vlach, 56 ff.

Daniel and Gregory, the geography
of, cited, 216

Daniel, lexicographer, 216 ; his lexi-
con, 6

Dardania, 268, 273

Davelis, a brigand, 22, 166, 197, 200

David, larother of Samuel of Bulgaria,
slain by Vlachs, 257

Davli, Nikolak'i, capitan of Zaghori,

195, 196
Dedheryianni, 176
Demetrius, St., churches of, Baieasa,

195 ; Ghrevena, 28 ; day of,

48, 79, 136
Demetrius, of Samarina, 152
Demir Hissar, 221
Densko, 213, 214
Dhamasi, 174

Dhamsis. See Ismail Agha
Dhelvino, 46

Dhervenas, Yeoryios, a brigand, 154
Dhervizhana, 24
Dhiminitsa, 11
Dhimos, Deli, capitan of Ghrevena,

24
Dhiskata, 11
Dhispuli, Ghushu al, nicknamed

Makriyeni, 165, 197
Dhukas, a brigand, 157, 158
Dimotika, 222

Dioclea, the Presbyter of, cited, 265
Dobrinovo, 191, 200, 201
Doliani (in Zaghori), 191, 195
Doliani (near Verria), 211
Dositheos, cited, 22
Dragari, 191
Drama, 200
Dreshtenikii, 191
Ducas, John, prince of Great Vlachia,

264
Duda, courier of Ali Pasha, 26
Durazzo, 223
Dushan, Vlach troops employed

against, 265
Dusko, 72

Dzhimuzhoga, Zisial,i68
Dzhumaia, 198, 221

Easter, 141
Edem Pasha, 169
Efthimiu, a brigand, 204
Egri Palanka, 221

INDEX

327

Egypt, 213. See also Alexandria

Eiiissona, i, 21, 46, 139, 142, 174, 210

Elbas'^an, 223

Eleftherokhori, 20

Elijah, St., churches of, Turia, 180;

Samarina, 40, 43, 70, 87 ff., 93,

133 ; festival of , 134, 141, 166
Eliot, Sir Charles, cited, 98
Epiphany, 136 ff.
Epirus, climate in, 33 ; The Chronicle

of, cited, 184, 185, 209 ; Vlachs

in, 222, 257, 264
Europos, river, the modern Xerias,

II
Evans, Sir Arthur, cited, 133, 223,

273
Exeva, 259

Fagu Skriptu, 190

Fandana, La, a spring near Samarina,

45, 50
Farsherots, or Albanian Vlachs, 4,

195, 206, 210, 212, 213, 214,

216, 217, 223
Fauriel, cited, 126
Fezlu, La, 197
Finlay, cited, 156
Floka, Steryiu or K'iriu, the story of,

185, 209
Floro, or Phlamburari, 191
Folklore, 4, 14, 16, 178, 180, 202. See

also Chapters VI and VII
Frasheri, 223
Fteri, 2x0
Furka, 178, 204, 205, 219, 252

Gabriel (Ghavril), bishop of Ghrevena,

23,88
Games, Vlach, 54 ff.
Gardhiki. See Gardista
Gardista, 207, 250
Garelia, two brothers, brigands, 165,

166, 197
Gemellomuntes, 256
George, St., church of, Ghrevena, 28 ;

day of, 48, 77, 142
Gerebina. See Ghrevena
G'evg'eli, 219
Ghalaxidhi, 208
Ghrevena, description and history

of, 22 ff., 46, 174
Ghrevian Rakhiotis, 27
Ghrivas, leader in insurrection of

1854, 157, 187, 188
Ghrizhano, 174, 185
Ghumara, mountain, 37 ; timber on,

45.75
Ghunitsa, ferry at, 13, 14
Gika, a brigand, 165, i56, 197
Gipsies, 32 ; musicians called, 58, 181

G'oni, 174

Gopesh, 218, 219, 251

Gorgul'u, mountain, 37 ; timber on,

45. 70. 71, 75 ; used as place

of refuge, 146, 148
Grabovo, 217
Gramatikova, 212

Gramos mountain, and Vlach dis-
trict, 206, 213, 214
Gramosteani, 206, 249
Gramosti, 213, 218, 220, 221
Grebene. See Ghrevena
Grebenitsi, 191
Greece —

Greek character and customs,

contrasted with Vlach, 49, 51,

53, 54, 181, 186
estimates of Vlach population,

10 ff.
frontier, advantageous for

brigandage, 19, 77, 196 ;

changes in, effect of, 17, 167,

188, 209
insurrections, effect of, 155, 159,

160, 168, 169, 187 ff.
language, influence of, 2, 230,

251 ff., 254
propaganda, 7, 97, 105, 175, 177,

181, 183, 187, 194, 200, 204.

See also Hellenism
Gregory, patriarch of Achrida, 215
Gregory and Daniel, geography of,

cited, 216
Gregory, bishop of Ghrevena, 23
Gregory, of Muskopol'e, 216
Greklu, La, 37 ; spring, and story of,

204, 205
Gudrumitsa, 44, 89
Guguleka, 174

Hadzhi, Yannuli al Miha al, headman

of Samarina, 155
Hadzhibira, Leonidha al, a brigand,

41, 43, 91 ; history of, 160 ff.
Hadzhik'iria, Dzhoga al, 155, 158,

159
Hadzhik'iriu, Zhogu al Lala al,

secretray of Ali Pasha, 151
Hadzhimati, 147
Kaidha, intended as bride for

Napoleon, 151
Haliakmon, river, 19, 21, 210
Halik'i, 207, 250
Halley's comet, a sign of war, 13
Hashia, district of, 18, 19 ; Hashiots,

18, 19, 20, 29, 32, 33
Hassan Kopatsi, spring of, 149
Hellenism, 6, 30, 46, 97, 99, 132, 142,

151, 167, 169, 192, 194, 200 ff.,

216, 218, 221, 224, 266 ff.

328

THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

Herodotus, cited, 267
H'ilimodhi, 72, 75, 93, 151
Holland, cited, 186
Hondre, Adham, 88
Honia, 146
Hoti, 147

Hrupishta, 46, 167, 213
Husseyn Agha, 25
Hutsha, 147

Ignatios, patriarch of Achrida, 23,

215
Ilino, 217

Imperatoria. See Peritore
Innocent III, his policy towards the

Vlachs, 262, 265
loasaph, patriarch of Achrida, 216
Ipek, 219
Isaac Angelus, Byzantine emperor,

his policy towards Vlachs and

Bulgarians, 259, 260
Isaiah, of Metsovo, 184
Ismail Agha, or Ismail Dhamsis, his

exploits, 149
Istok, 176, 217
Istria, 223, 226
Italy, cheese exported to, 78, 186,

191
Itrizis, a false coiner, song of, 150
Ivan, revolt of, 261

Jews, 193, 194, 212, 218, 221 ; Jewish
names among Vlachs, 258

Joannice. See Johannitius I

Johanizza. See Johannitius I

Johannitius I, also called Joannice
or Johanizza, King of the
Vlachs and Bulgarians, his
reign, wars and death, 261-263

Johannitius II, or John Asan, king
of the Vlachs and Bulgarians,
his reign, 263, 264

John, St., festivals of, 130 ff., 140 ;
monastery of, Muskopol'c, 215

Joseph, patriarch of Achrida, 215

Kailar, Koniari Turks from, 72, 211,

212
Kainarji, treaty of, 93
Kalabaka, 17, 46
Kalarites, description of, 207-209,

250
Kalarl'i. See Kalarites.
Kaldarosha, 180
Kallikandzari, 137 ff.
Kamytses, defeat and capture of, 261,

262
Kapas, loannis, 151
Kaphetsis, K., killed by Abdi Pasha,

24

Karadashu, 147
Karadhzova mountains, 219
Karadzhas, Yeorghakis, a brigand,

163, 164, 165
Kardhitsa, 46
Karkandzal'i, 137 flf.
Karitsa, 175
Karpenisi, 103
Karvuno-Lepenitsa, 16
Kassandra, mules from, 31
Kastania, in Phthiotis, 25
Kastania, in Pindus, 207
Kastoria, 257
Kastraki, 17

Katarah'ia, a brigand, 166, 167
Katerini, 46, 154, 159, 210
K'atra Asparta, 38
K'atra a Buflui, 38
K'atra N'agra, 37, 72, 145
Kavala, 200

Kavalliotis, of Muskopol'e, 216
Kazani, La, 150
Kekaumenos, cited, 258, 266
Kephalovriso, 11
Kerasova, 148, 149 ; Greek masons

from, 72
K'etri, Doaule, 36
Khatsobasi, 176
Kipurio, 24, 28, 30, 31
Kira Kale, 27, 28
K'iriamii, Miha al, secretary of AH

Pasha, 151
Kissavos (Ossa), mountain, 259
Klisura, 5, 8, 132, 139, 210, 212, 213,

221, 251
Koasta, La, 146
Kodru Mare, 180
Koinsko, 220
Kokinoplo, 210

Kolonia, raiders from, 147, 149
Konitsa, 37 ; fair of , 84, 136
Koritsa. See Kortsha
Kornu, 207, 250
Koromilia, 176
Kortsha, 5, 147, 214
Kosa, Nak'i al, 148
Kosmas, St., 24, 44, 89 ; tree of, 173 ;

life and travels of, 193, 194,

199
Kozhani, 41, 46, 75
Krania. See Kornu and Turia
Krimini, 72

Krushevo, 8, 139, 218, 222, 250
Ksirolivadi, 210, 212
Kumanovo, 221

Kupatshar, 24, 29 ff., 33, 35, 36, 179
K'urista, 45, 50, 71, 130, 146
Kurt Pasha, 24
Kutsobina, 206
Kutsokale, 36

INDEX

329

Kutsokhiro, ferry at, 14
Kutsovlach, meaning of, 2, 3, 9
Kutsufliani, 185
Kututringa, Dzima al, 148

Labanitsa, 30, 179
Laista. See Laka
Laka, 149, 191, 222 ; description of,

199, 200
Lakii Vinitii, 203
Lala, Turks from, 28
Lambridhis, cited, 185, 186, 195, 203,

204, 207
Lamia. See Zeitun
Lapsishta, 29
Larissa, i, 46, 258
Latin, its likeness to Vlach, 2 ; use

of in Balkan peninsula, 266 ff.
Lavda, 35

Lazarus, day of, 141
Leake, cited, 27, 33, 98, 144, 147,

181, 186, 187, 190, 191, 194,

207, 208, 214, 215
Leipzig, fair of, 214
Leo, patriarch of Achrida, 22
Leonidha. See Hadzhibira
Le Quien, cited, 22
Leshnitsa, 191, 201
Levareka, 217

Linotopi, 213, 214, 216, 217, 218
Lopovo, 221
Lowell (U.S.A.), 171
Lucius of Trau, cited, 265, 266
L'umnitsa, 139, 220
Lunka, 217, 251
Lupofantana, 256
Lupii Spindzuratu, pass of, 149, 157

Magarova, 218, 219, 222

Makarios, bishop of Ghrevena, 23

Makri, of Perivoli, 165, 166

Makrikhori, 46

Makrini, 191

Malakasi, 17, 185, 207, 209, 250, 265

Manchester (U.S.A.), 171

Manekas, a brigand, 197

Manesi, 19

Marseilles, 186

Mary, St., churches of, Samarina,

39, 40, 44, 70, 84 fE., 88, 146 ;

festivals of, greater, 48, 109,

135 ; lesser, 48, 109, 136
Matsuki, 208
Mavrar.ei, 26
Mavronoro, 24, 25 ; description of,

33 ; festival of, 129 ff.
Meglen, 139, 141, 219, 220, 226
Mehmed Agha, 156, 157 ; history of,

25 ff.
Melenik, 198, 221

Meletios, bishop of Athens, cited, 28

Mermishaklu, 43

Mesolongi, siege of, 26

Meteora, 17 ; MS. from monastery

at, cited, 129
Metsovo, 2, 86, 126, 254 ; description

and history of, 182-189
Michael Angelus, despot of Epirus,

264
Midhala, of Phili, 27
Miha, of Samarina, 150
Milia, river, 182. See also Ameru
Mitsikeli, mountain, 189
Moasha, mountain, 37, 44
Molovishte, 218, 219, 251
Monastir, 7, 24, 41, 83, 218, 219, 222,

250
Morava, 214
Morlachs, 223, 257, 265
Morminde, col of, 24, 36, 37, 45, 75
Moscow, 186
Mudum Bey, 157
Mukhtar Agha, 165, 166
Murghani, river, 17
Muskopol'e, 5, 6, 72, 218, 219, 221 ;

description of, 214 ff.

Naples, 186

Nashua (U.S.A.), 171

Neghadhes, 192 ; raid on, 25

Negovani, 213

Neokhori, 185

Neopatras, 264

Neophytos, bishop of Ghrevena, 23

Neveska, 5, 132, 139, 210, 213, 221,

251

Nevrekop, 198, 221

New Samarina, 16

New Zealand, 182

Niausta, 46 , 211

Niceta, of Remesiana, 267, 268

Nicetas, cited, 259, 260

Nicholas, St., Church of, Ghrevena,

28 ; day of, 136. See also

Nikola, Ayiu
Nicolaidy, cited, 30
Nigrita, 198
Nikola, Ayiu, monastery of, near

Perivoli, 175, 179. See also

Nicholas, St.
Nikolitsa, 213, 214, 216, 217, 218, 219
Nikuta, 146 ; Dzima al, 148
Nish, 222
Nizhopoli, 218
Nkiare, 183
Nturia, 180
Nunte, 219, 220

Odessa, 186

Okhridha (Achrida), 5, 7, 176, 217,

330

THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

251, 257 ; patriarchate of, 1
7, 22 ; lake of, 217

Olympus, mountain and Vlach dis-
trict, 107, 210, 252

Orloff , revolt instigated by, 24

Oshini, 139

Ostrovo, Lake, 210

Osum, river, 223

Othrys, mountain, 3

Ou, mountain, 177

Fade Mushata, 36, 164

Padza, 202, 252

Paganus, 257

Pagatsa, 166

Pala, Nak'i, a brigand, 166

Paleogardhiki, 16

Paleopoghoni, 207

Paleo-Samarina, 92

Paliohori, 191 ; description of, 199,

200
Palioseli, description of, 201, 202
Palita, La, 145

Pankratios, bishop of Ghrevena, 23
Pantalonia. See Pende Alonia.
Papayeoryi, Dzhima al, 155, 158,

159 ; Miha al, 158
Papayeoryiu, cited, 107, 125
Papingu, mountain, 189 ; legend,

of, 202, 203
Paraskevi, Ayia, churches of, Alpo-

khori, 24 ; Ghrevena, 28 ;

monaster}'- of, Samarina, 90 ff. ;

festival of, 134. See also

Vineri, St.
Paul, St. See Peter, St.
Pazaiiti, Dhimitrak'i al, 162
Pelagonia, 262
Penda, La, 43
Pende Alonia, 189
Peneus, river, 13, 14
Peristeri, mountain, near Metsovo,

182
Peristeri, mountain, near Molovishte,

218
Peri tore, 190
Perivoli, 21, 29, 30, 195, 252 ;

description of, 175-179
Perlepe, 219. See also Prilapus
Peshtera, 198
Peter, St., and St. Paul, chapel of,

Samarina, 85 ; festival of,

48, 129. See also Mavronoro
Peter, revolt and reign of, 260, 261
Pharsala, 258
Phili, II, 27

Philippei, 24, 30, 31, 36, 172
Philotheos, patriarch of Achrida, 215
Phlamburari. See Floro
Phrangadhes, 192

Pindus, mountain range and Vlach

district, i, 11, 185, 207 ff., 213,

221, 252
Pipilishte, 212
Pirpiruna, 130 ff.
Pisoderi, 210, 213
Pius II. See Aeneas Sylvius
Platamona, 120
Pleasa, 4, 210, 214
Pleshia, 20

Poghoni, district of, raided, 147
Politzia. See Pulitshaii
Poroi, 198, 201
Potamia, district of, 12, 46
Pouqueville, cited, 22, 27, 30, 46, 47,

129, 144, 147, 152, 180, 187,

208, 209
Preftu, Yanni al, 148, 149, 151
Premeti, 223

Presba, 257 ; lake of, 217
Preveza, 222

Prilapus, 262. See also Perlepe
Priscus, cited, 268
Prizrend, 219
Procopius, cited, 256
Prosakon, 261
Prosilion, 182
Pudilius, Vlach leader, 259
Pulitsa. See Pulitshaii
Pulitshaii, 190
Pushan, bridge of, 20

Ramna, 221

Raphael, patriarch of Achrida, 215

Rendina, 169

Resna, 5, 217

Rhodope, mountain, Vlachs in, 214,

221, 249
Roman colonics in Balkan peninsula,

268 ff.
Roumania, emigration to, 151, 200
Roumanian books on Vlachs, 9 ff.
estimates of Vlach population,

10
language, 2, 7, 226, 237
(or Nationalist) party among

Vlachs, 7, 70, 97, 105, 169, 170,

175, 177, 181, 204 ff., 211, 217,

220
propaganda, 7, 181, 191
Roumanians, origin of, 272 ff.
Rusium, battle of, 263
Russia, inlluence of, 24, 93 ; wars

with Turkey, effects of, 155,

159. 167. 187. See also

Kainarji, Moscow, Odessa,

Orloff

Sabinus, 257
Salonica, 7, li

j, 210, 263

INDEX

331

Samarina, passim

Samarina, New, 16

Samuel, of Bulgaria, 157

Sand Dumetru, 195

Sardhimiu, 174

Sardica, 260

Satrae, 2G7

Saviour, St., church of, 92, 93, 134.

See also Transfiguration, fes-
tival of
Sekhret, Hajji, court poet of Ali

Pasha, 192
Selia, 210, 212
Selitsa, 212, 214

Seraphim, bishop of Ghrevena, 23
Seres, 186, 198, 221, 263 fi.
Serfije, 24, 84, 210
Serinu, 182, 183
Servia, 213, 222
Seshi, 191
Sharganei, 35
Shatishta, 4, 30, 41, 46, 51, 75, 154,

212, 214
Shipiska, 216
Shishani, 212
Shkraku, Dzhima, 166 ; Yeor^'i, 166 ;

Zisi, 166
Shoput al Dabura, 44, 70
Shoput al Kodru, 145
Shoput al Papazisi, 43
Shoput al Sakelariu, 43
Shoput di la Stamaria, 40
Sikia, 150

Simika, a brigand, 165, 166
Siraku, 191, 250 ; description of,

207-209
Skeptekasas, 256
Skordhei, La, 37, 75
Skumbra, Farsherot brigands, 181
Skurdzha, 149
Skutina, 92
Smiksi, 21. 24, 29, 252 ; description

of, 172, 173, 178, 179
Sokolis, Spiridhon, cited, 183, 184,

270
Sofia, 5, 221, 222
Spileo, 25, 35
Sta Vinera, 195
Stenimachos, 140
Strabo, cited, 267
Stratos, 206
Stropan, 214
Struga, 217
Strumnitsa, 261 ff.
Subeno, 26
Sufli, 222

Sula, of Ghrevena, 27
Suphlari, 217
Suroveli, 206
Symeon, bishop of Ghrevena, 23

Taha, Yanni al, 156, 157

Takos, of Eurytania, 197

Taktalasman, 176

Taron, Vlach chieftain, 264

Tatar, 16, 46

Tatar Bazar jik, 222

Tepeleni, raiders from, 147

Theodore, St., monastery of, 17

Theodore, bishop of Ghrevena, 23

Theophanes, the historian, cited, 257

Theophanes, bishops of Ghrevena, 23

Theophylactus, cited, 256, 257

Thessaly, Vlachsin, i, 209, 258, etc.

Thomas, despot of Epirus, 184

Thomas, St., day of, 132

Thucydides, cited, 267

Timavos, 11, 12, 46, 84

Timova, Vlach village, 218

Timova, Bulgaria, 263

Tishta, 35

Toivash, 176, 217

Totskas, Dhimitrios, a brigand, 24

Transfiguration, festival of the, 93,
108, 134. See also Saviour,
St.

Transilvania, 226

Triandaphilos, Yerasios, 87

Trieste, 186

Trikkala, i, 16, 32, 46, 84, 176, 258

Tsan'ara, 147

Tsaritsani, 46

Tsepelovo, 192

Tshakalia, 28

Tshamuria, district in Albania, dance
called after, 58

Tsherneshi, 191

Tshikma, Dimitri, 181

Tshopa, Zisi al, kills Karadzhas, 163

Tshoti, 174

Tshotili, 41, 72, 145

Tshuka, 72, 145

Tshutra, Adham, 87, 150, 151

Tsigharas, loannis, of Vradheto, 151

Tsintsars, a name for Vlachs, 2

Tsomanga, of Metsovo, 24

Turia, 30, 56, 132, 139, 252 ; descrip-
tion of, 179-181

Turks, rule of, effects of, 5 ff., 12, 18,
23 ff., 27, 30, 34, 39, 69 ff.,
170, 180, 187, 195, 197, 205,
220, 224 ; language of, in-
fluence of, 2, 99, 229, 230, 232,
246

Tuzhi, 35

Urban, a Vlach, makes cannon at

siege of Constantinople, 265
Uskub, 219, 273

Valakhadhes, 29 ff., 34

332

THE NOMADS OF THE BALKANS

Valea Kalda, 25, 177

Valea Kama, 44, 75

Valitshe, river, 41

Valko, La, 35

Varna, 260

Varoshi, 27, 28

Vartholomeos, bishop of Ghrevena,

93
Vasili, companion of Karadzhas,

164
Vasilitsa, mountain, 20
Velemishti, 18
Veles, 219
Velestinos, i, 176
Veli Agha, 26
Veli Bey, 26
Veli Pasha, 148
Velitsa, 208
Venetiko, river, 20, 34
Venice, 186, 214
Verria, 5, 46, 139, 154, 159, 252 ;

description of, 210-212
Vienna, 186, 214
Villehardouin, cited, 262, 263
Vineri, St., festival of, Perivoli, 176.

See also Paraskevi, Ayia
Visiani, plundered by Garelia, 166
Vlachia, Great, 207, 257, 264 ; Little,

207, 257, 264, 265
Vlaho-Klisura. See Klisura
Vlaho-Livadhi, 210, 221
Vlakhavas, revolt of, 24, 150
Vlakhoyianni, 4, 46, 139, 210
Vodhendzko, 35
Volos, 41, 46
Vovusa. See Baieasa
Vrania, 222
Vriashteno, 34

Vudhonitsa, 198
Vutunoshi, 185

Weigand, cited, 9, 10, 30, 190, 200,

206, 207, 214, 220, 221, 250
Whitsuntide, 142

Xanthi, mules from, 31

Xerias, river, the ancient Europos, 1 1

Xylander, cited, 257

Yannina, 7, 46, 192, 222

Year, New, 137 ff. See also Basil,

St., festival of
Yennadhios, bishop of Ghrevena, 88
Yioldhasis, Yeoryios, a brigand, song

concerning, 165

Zaburdo, monastery of, 92 ; ikon

from, 142
Zaghori, a district in Epirus, 147,

189 ff., 254
Zalakostas, a Greek poet, 209
Zalovo, 31
Zarkos, 15, 174
Zeitun (Lamia), 258
Zhakas, Yeorghakis, Yiannulas and

Theodhoros, a brigand family,

their exploits, 24 &,, 156, 157,

196
Zhupan, Greek masons from, 72, 175
Zhurkas, a brigand, exploits of, 160,

163
Zighos, pass of, 17, 182, 187
Zmolku, mountain, 20, 37, 44 ;

alleged mines on, 144 ; legend

of, 202, 203
Zurpapa, legend of, 16

Printed by Morrison & Gibb Limited, Edinburgh

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Library Bureau Cat. No. 1137

UC SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY

A A 001 396 053 9

DR5-7

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